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. 2021 Aug 19;12:708435. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2021.708435

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Copyright © 2021 Peirlinck, Sahli Costabal and Kuhl.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Baseline spatiotemporal excitation profiles for the male and female heart. Evolution of the transmembrane potential for the male and female heart without drugs. Snapshots are taken from the last simulated beat. During depolarization, the Purkinje fibers drive the sharp depolarization front from apex to base. During repolarization, both ventricles gradually return to their resting state. The combined sex-differences in ion channel activity, tissue conductivity and organ-scale geometry lead to a slower depolarization in the female heart than the male heart.