TABLE 2.
Selected in vivo studies at a preclinical level using prebiotics and/or their metabolites (SCFA) and probiotics to modulate brain physiology and function.
| Prebiotics/Probiotics/SCFA | Feeding duration | Model organism | Observation | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sodium butyrate (1.2 g/kg BW) in combination with fluoxetine (10 mg/kg BW) | 4 weeks | C57BL/6J mice | Histone hyperacetylation in the hippocampus and frontal cortex for short-term, thereby exerted anti-depressant like effects | Schroeder et al. (2007) |
| Sodium butyrate (1.2 g/kg BW) | 4 weeks | CK-p25 Tg mice | Histone hyperacetylation improved learning and memory | Fischer et al. (2007) |
| Propionic acid (500 mg/kg BW, twice a day) | 3 weeks | Pregnant Long-Evans rats | Enhancement in repetitive behavior associated with ASD | Foley et al. (2014) |
| Sodium butyrate (1.2 g/kg BW) | 5 weeks | Female ICR (CD1) mice | Increased histone H4 acetylation in hippocampus facilitated amelioration of memory impairment | Takuma et al. (2014) |
| GOS (4 g/kg BW) | Postnatal days (3–21) | Neonatal rats | Alterations in BDNF levels, synaptic proteins (synaptophysin, MAP2, and GAP43), and NMDAR subunits (GluN1, GluN2A, GluN2B) | Williams et al. (2016) |
| E. faecium (4 × 108 CFU) | 5 weeks | Sprague-Dawley male rats | Lower levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and higher levels of BDNF in the hippocampus region of synbiotic and prebiotic treated animals Significant increase in butyrate concentration after synbiotic and prebiotic supplementation | Araiza et al., 2018 |
| Inulin (860 mg/kg BW) | ||||
| E. faecium + inulin (4 × 108 CFU + 860 mg/kg BW) | ||||
| GOS (15 g/L) | 3 weeks | SPF Sprague-Dawley male adult rats | Downregulated activation of microglial cells, thereby reducing surgery-induced cognitive impairments | Yang et al. (2018) |
| Polydextrose-GOS (7 and 15 g/kg BW for mice and rats, respectively) | Postnatal days (21–50) | Weanling male C57BL/6J mice SD rats LE rats | Improvement of memory and reducing anxiety-related behaviors in normally developing rodents | Waworuntu et al. (2014) |
| Polydextrose-GOS (2 g/L each) | Postnatal days (2–33) | Translational piglet model | Higher recognition memory | Fleming et al. (2019) |
| FOS GOS FOS + GOS (0.3–0.4 g/mouse/day) | 10 weeks | Male C57BL/6J mice | Improvement in brain chemistry and social behavior related to anxiety and depression Enhanced levels of SCFA in the caecum reduction in stress-induced corticosterone levels in plasma Anti-anxiety levels in open field and elevated plus-maze | Burokas et al. (2017) |
| XOS (10%) | 12 weeks | Male Wister rats | Enhancement in brain mitochondrial function and synaptic plasticity, thereby restoring cognitive function | Chunchai et al. (2018) |
| L. paracasei HIIO1 (1 × 108 CFU) | ||||
| Synbiotics (XOS + L. paracasei HIIO1; 1:1 ratio) | ||||
| Lactoferrin (0.3 g/100 g milk powder) | Postnatal days (2–31) | Piglets | Positively influenced brain development as evidenced with neuroimaging outcomes | Mudd et al. (2016) |
| Milk fat globule membrane (0.25 g/100 g milk powder) | ||||
| Blend of polydextrose (1.3 g/100 g milk powder)/GOS (3.5 g/100 g milk powder) | ||||
| FOS + XOS (3 g/kg/day) | Gestation days (0–19) | Pregnant Wistar rats | Enhanced exploratory behavior in the open field test Reduction in acrylamide-induced oxidative stress markers level | Krishna et al. (2015) |
| Inulin (2 g/kg/day) | Gestation days (0–19) | Pregnant Wistar rats | Reduction in acrylamide induced increase in oxidative markers in the fetal and the brain tissues | Krishna and Muralidhara (2015) |
| Inulin (2 g/kg BW, twice a day) | Gestation days (6–19) | Pregnant Wistar rats | Inulin supplementation diminished gestational rotenone induced increase in oxidative markers in the regions of the maternal brain and affected the whole fetal brain | Krishna and Muralidhara (2018) |
| FOs (200 ul) | 4 weeks | Young adult female C57/BL mice | Ameliorated behavioral recovery following spinal cord injury via modulating the expression of inflammatory mediators | Li et al. (2020) |
| COS (0.2 mM) | 1 day | C. elegans | Enhancement in the antioxidant potential with an increase in dopamine levels, thereby attenuating monocrotophos induced oxidative stress | Nidheesh et al. (2016) |