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. 2021 Sep 6;23:99. doi: 10.1186/s12968-021-00796-3

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 7 — Visualization of flow by 4D flow CMR compared to smoke injection in a curved pipe. Top) Streamline flow by 4D flow CMR in a cross section of the distal descending aorta (DAo) as shown in the schematic on the left in four example patients of varying exercise capacity (VO2 max) from poor to excellent (left to right). Increasing secondary flow formation is seen as Reynolds number (Re) decreases and VO2 increases. Bottom) Reproduced and adapted from Kurokawa et al (CC BY license 4.0): cross-sections of pipe after a 180 degree bend (location shown at left) with decreasing Re from left to right. High Re leads to completely turbulent flow with no secondary flow visualization (left). With decreasing Re, secondary flow formation strengthens creating fully developed Dean vortices at low Re (right)