Table 2.
Summary and key findings of lignin-related biosensors and bioimaging applications.
| Type of Lignin | Matrix Material | Form | In-vitro Study | Key Findings | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kraft lignin | Silica Glucose oxidase |
Biosensor | – | Two-fold increase in glucose oxidase immobilization (25.28 mg/g) Successful linear response glucose detection (0.5–9 mM) with detection limit (145 μM) and high sensitivity (0.78 μA/mM) |
[135] |
| Kraft lignin | Magnetite Polydopamine Glucose oxidase |
Biosensor | – | High glucose oxidase loading (29.44 ± 2.39 mg/g) Comparable glucose detection sensitivity and accuracy with commercial biosensors |
[138] |
| Kraft lignin | Gallium oxide Zirconium (IV) oxide Glucose oxidase |
Biosensor | – | 24.7 and 27.1 mg/g glucose oxidase immobilization Successful glucose detection |
[136] |
| Lignin from wood | – | Bioimaging | Human dermal fibroblasts | Good fluorescence ability and photostable for 30 days About 10–30% of radical scavenging behavior Less than 20% decrease in fibroblasts, hence considered non-cytotoxic |
[139] |
| Alkali lignin | – | Biosensor | Mouse L929 fibroblasts Mouse 3T3 fibroblasts |
Excellent sensitivity for hydrogen peroxide detection as low as 0.13 nM Low cytotoxicity (≥90.32% cell viability) |
[140] |
| Lignin | – | Bioimaging | Human lung A549 adenocarcinoma cells HeLa cells |
Biocompatible and low cytotoxicity (≥80% cell viability) Good photoluminescence for imaging of HeLa cells |
[141] |
| Alkali lignin | Silver | Biosensor | Breast cancer MCF-7 cells Melanoma A375 cells |
Hydrogen peroxide detection across 10−1 – 10−6 M with high sensitivity and linear relationship Cytotoxic characteristics (≤30% cell viability) |
[142] |
| Organosolv lignin | Concanavalin A Horseradish peroxidase Glucose oxidase |
Biosensor | – | Suitable for glucose detection using chromogenic substrates Better or comparable limit of detection at 0.85 μM |
[143] |
| Lignosulfonate | Nitrogen MXene/Prussian blue |
Biosensor | – | Successful detection behavior for hydrogen peroxide (0–10 mM), glucose (10 μM–5.3 mM), lactate (0–20 mM) and alcohol (0–50 mM) across broad concentrations | [144] |
| Corn stover lignin | Magnetite Anti-prion protein aptamer |
Biosensor | – | 10-fold sensitivity improvement and successful detection of prion protein across 0.1–200 ng/mL | [145] |
| Organosolv lignin | Antigenic p17-1 peptide sequence | Biosensor | – | Successful detection of specific anti-p17 human immune deficiency virus antibodies as low as 0.1 ng/mL | [146] |