Table 1.
Diverse disease risks due to air pollution-mediated epigenetic changes
| Air pollutants | Epigenetic mark | Diseases/Symptoms | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | PM2.5 | Promoter methylation of the tumor suppressor p16 gene | Lung cancer | Soberanes et al. 2012 |
| 2 | PM2.5 | SOX2 promoter hypermethylation | Lung Cancer | Tantoh et al. 2019 |
| 3 | PM2.5 | miRNA mediated deregulation in gene expression . | Lung Cancer | Ning et al. 2019 |
| 4 | PM2.5 | H3K27ac (histone 3 lysine 27 acetylation) | Inflammatory responses | Liu et al. 2015 |
| 5 | PM2.5 | Alterations in LINE-1 methylation, methylation at CpG loci of TNF-α | Inflammation | Wang et al. 2020a |
| 6 | PM2.5 | Altered global DNA methylation, P16 gene promoter methylation, and DNMT activity, altered post-translational histone modification. | COPD | Leclercq et al. 2017 |
| 7 | PM2.5 | Mitochondrial DNA methylation | Heart rate variability | Byun et al. 2016 |
| 8 | PM2.5 | miRNA | Cardiovascular diseases | Chen et al. 2018 |
| 9 | PM 2.5 | Methylation at candidate CpGs in monocytes | Atherosclerosis | Chi et al. 2016 |
| 10 | PM 2.5 | Genome-wide DNA methylation | Cardiometabolic diseases | Li et al. 2018a |
| 11 | PM 2.5 | ICAM-1 promoter methylation | Glucose dysregulation | Peng et al. 2016 |
| 12 | PM2.5 | Regulation of extracellular vesicle-enriched miRNA (evmiRNAs) expression by DNA methylation | Altered systolic blood pressure | Rodosthenous et al. 2018 |
| 13 | PM2.5 | Altered methylation in clock genes (CRY1, CRY2, NPAS2 ) | Ischemic stroke | Cantone et al. 2020 |
| 14 | Prenatal exposure to PM2.5 | Cord blood DNA methylation of IGF2/H19 gene | Disease risk in later life | Wang et al. 2020b |
| 15 | Prenatal exposure to PM2.5 | Lower expression levels of the miR-17/92 cluster in cord blood | Cancer risk, disease predisposition in later life | Tsamou et al. 2020 |
| 16 | PM2.5, metals from traffic sources (Cd, Fe, Mn, and Ni) | DNA methylation in imprinted control regions(L3MBTL1, NNAT, PEG10, GNAS Ex1A, MCTS2, SNURF/SNRPN, IGF2R, and RB1) | Risk associated with non-small cell lung cancer, glioma, and bladder cancer | Liang et al. 2021 |
| 17 | PM2.5 and PM10 | Hypomethylation of tandem repeats SATα | Inflammation | Guo et al. 2014 |
| 18 | Ambient air pollutant: PM2.5, PM10, PAH, O3 | Hypermethylation of Foxp3 locus | Asthma | Janssen et al. 2013 |
| 19 | PM2.5, NOx | CpG-methylation, DMRs in circulating monocytes | Atherosclerosis pathogenesis | C Chi et al. 2021 |
| 20 | PM2.5, NO2 | DNA methylation on cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) sites and differentially methylated regions (DMRs). | Inflammation and immune responses | Eze et al. 2020 |
| 21 | Traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) – PM2.5, PM10, NO2 and SO2 | DNA methylation and histone H3K9 acetylation | Respiratory disorders | Ding et al. 2017 |
| 22 | Exposure to PM2.5, PM10 during pregnancy | DNA methylation on CpG sites and on differentially methylated regions (DMRs) | Respiratory health | Gruzieva et al. 2019 |
| 23 | Ambient air pollutants: PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, CO. | Genome-wide analysis of differential DNA methylation | Pulmonary disorders and cancers | Wang et al. 2020c |
| 24 | Traffic-related pollutants: PM2.5, black carbon, NO2, CO | LINE-1, Alu, and gene-specific DNA methylation tissue factor (F3), Toll-Like Receptor 2 (TLR-2), and ICAM-1) | Cardiovascular disease | Lisanti et al. 2013 |
| 25 | Prenatal exposures to PM2.5, PM10 | Altered DNA methylation in specific gene promoters | Childhood cardio-respiratory health | Breton et al. 2016 |
| 26 | Prenatal exposures to PM2.5, PM10 | Placental global DNA methylation | Placental adaptation at the level of global DNA methylation | Maghbooli et al. 2018 |
| 27 | PM10 | microRNA-101 | Blood pressure | Motta et al. 2016 |
| 28 | PM10 (most abundant elements: Al, Fe, water soluble organic fraction) | Alterations in DNA methylation in macrophages | Inflammation | Miousse et al. 2014 |
| 29 | Iron-rich combustion- and friction-derived nanoparticles (CFDNPs) that are abundantly present in airborne particulate matter | Lower H3K9me2/me3 and higher γ-H2A.X | Alzheimer's disease (AD) | Calderón-Garcidueñas et al. 2020 |
| 30 | Airborne PM and PM metallic components | Extracellular vesicle (EV) miRNAs | Inflammation and coagulation | Pavanello et al. 2016 |
| 31 | Ambient ultrafine particles (UFP, diameter Dp < 0.18 μm) | Noncoding RNAs | Neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders | Solaimani et al. 2017 |
| 32 | Ozone (O3) | miRNAs, namely miR-132, miR-143, miR-145, miR-199a*, miR-199b-5p, miR-222, miR-223, miR-25, miR-424, and miR-582-5p | Inflammatory diseases | Fry et al. 2014 |
| 33 | Ozone (O3) | DNA methylation of the apelin gene | Pulmonary edema | Miller et al. 2018 |
| 34 | Traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) | Nasal DNA methylation | Childhood asthma | Zhang et al. 2018b |
| 35 | Traffic-related air pollution | Differentially methylated CpG positions (DMPs) and differentially methylated regions (DMRs) | Asthma severity | Zhu et al. 2021 |
| 36 | Diesel exhaust particles (DEP) from traffic and house dust mite (HDM) | Changes in 5-methyl-cytosine (5mC) and 5-hydroxy-methylcytosine (5hmC) in the regulatory regions associated with transcription factors in airway epithelial cells | Airway diseases, asthma | Zhang et al. 2018a, 2018b, 2018c (July) |
| 37 | Diesel Exhaust (DE) | CpG site methylation | Allergic disease | Clifford et al. 2017 |
| 38 | Diesel Exhaust (DE) | CysLT-related gene methylation | Asthma, poor lung function | Rabinovitch et al. 2021 |
| 39 | Diesel Exhaust (DE) | CpG site methylation, DMRs in bronchial epithelial cells | Pulmonary pathologies | Cardenas et al. 2021 |
| 40 | Gestational exposure to Diesel Exhaust (DE) | DNA methylation in global regulatory regions | Cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis and susceptibility to heart failure | Goodson et al. 2019 |
| 41 | Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | Methylation in the FOXP3 locus | Asthma, allergic rhinitis | Hew et al. 2015 |
| 42 | PAH | Higher expression of let-7a, miR-146a-5p, and miR-155-5p and lower expression of IL-6, CXCL8, and TLR2 mRNAs | Inflammation | Li et al. 2020 |
| 43 | PAH, Nitro-PAH, PM2.5 | Promoter methylation of CDKN2A, APC, and MLH1 genes and hypomethylation of the LINE-1 | Cancer risk | Silva et al. 2019 |
| 44 | Phenanthrene (Phe) | CpG island methylation of FOXP3 gene | Atopic conditions | Liu et al. 2013 |
| 45 | Coke oven emissions (COE), PAHs | Hypomethylation of LINE-1 and AhRR gene | Lung cancer | Yang et al. 2018 |
| 46 | Air pollutants | Histone modifications (H3K9ac, H3K9me3, H3K27me3, and H3K36me3) | Blood pressure | Kresovich et al. 2017 |
| 47 | Air pollution | Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C677T polymorphism | Alzheimer’s disease (AD) | Wu et al. 2017b |
| 48 | Environmental tobacco smoke | Alteration in gene-specific and global DNA methylation | Allergic asthma | Christensen et al. 2017 |
| 49 | Tobacco smoke exposure | CD14 methylation | Allergic diseases | Munthe-Kaas et al. 2012 |
| 50 | Environmental tobacco smoke | Alterations in methylation pattern of IFN-γ and Thy-1 promoters | Respiratory diseases | Cole et al. 2017 |
| 51 | Prenatal exposure to tobacco smoke | Alterations in DNA methylation of LINE1 and AluYb8. Changes in the methylation on CpGs in the promoter region of AXL and PTPRO genes. | Disease risk in later life | Breton et al. 2009 |
| 52 | Cigarette smoke | Hypomethylation on the glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) gene | COPD | Cheng et al. 2016 |
| 53 | Cigarette smoke | CpG methylation Of gene AIRE, PENK and SLC6A3 | Non-small cell lung cancer | Ma et al. 2019 |
| 54 | Cigarette smoke | DNA methylation in white blood cells | Cardiovascular diseases | Chatziioannou et al. 2017 |
| 55 | Cigarette smoke | DNA methylation | Schizophrenia | Ma et al. 2020 |
| 56 | Indoor air pollution caused by smoky coals with high benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) and quartz levels |
CDKN2A, DLEC1, CDH1, DAPK, RUNX3, APC, and WIF1 DNA methylation in the promoter region |
Primary non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) | Huang et al. 2018a |
| 57 | Biomass smoke | miR-126 and miR-155 | Cardiovascular diseases | Ruiz-Vera et al. 2019 |
| 58 | Second-hand smoke | Altered methylation of major repetitive DNA elements including LINE L1, IAP LTR and SINE B1 | Lung cancer | Tommasi et al. 2012 |
| 59 | Second-hand smoke | DNA methylation of several CpG loci | Bladder carcinoma | Wilhelm-Benartzi et al. 2011 |
| 60 | Second-hand smoke | CpG methylation within FOXP3 and IFNγ loci | Asthma | Runyon et al. 2012 |
| 61 | Smoke and second-hand smoke | Altered methylation of GSTP1, FHIT, and CDKN2A, SCGB3A1 and BRCA1genes | Breast cancer | Callahan et al. 2019 |