Table 7.
Bivariate and multivariable associations for PHQ-9 depression severity score.
| Bivariate analysis |
Multivariable analysis n = 3709 |
|||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minimum & mild n = 2523 n (%) |
Moderate/moderately severe & severe n = 1874 n (%) |
aOR (95% CI) | P-value | |
| Gender | – | |||
| Males | 873 (34.6) | 600 (32) | ||
| Females | 1650 (65.4) | 1274 (68) | ||
| Age | ||||
| [18–25[ | 1954 (77.4) | 1485 (79.2) | – | |
| [25–34] | 569 (22.6) | 389 (20.8) | ||
| Nationality | ||||
| Lebanese | 2319 (91.9) | 1656 (88.4)*** | Reference | 0.05 |
| Non-Lebanese | 204 (8.1) | 218 (11.6) | 1.25 (1.00; 1.57) | |
| Area of residence | ||||
| Beirut | 582 (23.1) | 444 (23.7) | – | |
| Akkar | 123 (4.9) | 98 (5.2) | ||
| Baalbak-Hermel | 126 (5) | 82 (4.4) | ||
| Bekaa | 292 (11.6) | 229 (12.2) | ||
| Mount Lebanon | 546 (21.6) | 398 (21.2) | ||
| Nabatieh | 98 (3.9) | 68 (3.6) | ||
| North | 391 (15.5) | 296 (15.8) | ||
| South | 365 (14.5) | 259 (13.8) | ||
| Marital status | ||||
| Married | 289 (11.5) | 190 (10.1) | – | |
| Single | 2221 (88) | 1665 (88.8) | ||
| Widow/divorced | 13 (0.5) | 19 (1) | ||
| Educational level | ||||
| Primary or less | 91 (3.6) | 79 (4.2) | – | |
| Secondary | 314 (12.4) | 249 (13.3) | ||
| University | 2118 (83.9) | 1546 (82.5) | ||
| Occupation | ||||
| HCW | 228 (9.1) | 132 (7.2) | – | |
| Non-HCW | 283 (11.3) | 200 (10.9) | ||
| Student | 1772 (70.8) | 1323 (71.9) | ||
| Unemployed | 221 (8.8) | 185 (10.1) | ||
| Alcohol intake | ||||
| No | 2193 (86.9) | 1565 (83.5)** | Reference | 0.7 |
| Yes | 330 (13.1) | 309 (16.5) | 1.04 (0.85; 1.27) | |
| Smoking cigarettes | ||||
| No | 2213 (87.7) | 1558 (83.1)*** | Reference | 0.2 |
| Yes | 310 (12.3) | 316 (16.9) | 1.15 (0.94; 1.40) | |
| Smoking hookah (nargileh) | ||||
| No | 1876 (74.4) | 1246 (66.5)*** | Reference | 0.03 |
| Yes | 647 (25.6) | 628 (33.5) | 1.18 (1.02; 1.37) | |
| Consuming caffeinated beverage | ||||
| No | 730 (28.9) | 471 (25.1)** | Reference | 0.3 |
| Yes | 1793 (71.1) | 1403 (74.9) | 1.09 (0.93; 1.28) | |
| Consuming energy drinks | ||||
| No | 2031 (80.5) | 1407 (75.1)*** | Reference | 0.2 |
| Yes | 492 (19.5) | 467 (24.9) | 1.13 (0.96; 1.34) | |
| Being the only person working at home | ||||
| No | 1830 (89.4) | 1386 (83.4)*** | Reference | 0.01 |
| Yes | 218 (10.6) | 275 (16.6) | 1.30 (1.06; 1.60) | |
| Family income per month in USD | ||||
| < 500 | 383 (15.2) | 376 (20.1)*** | Reference | |
| [500–1500[ | 1088 (43.1) | 771 (41.1) | 0.77 (0.64; 0.93) | 0.008 |
| [1500–2500[ | 646 (25.6) | 454 (24.2) | 0.78 (0.63; 0.97) | 0.03 |
| 2500 or above | 406 (16.1) | 273 (14.6) | 0.68 (0.53; 0.87) | 0.002 |
| Health insurance | ||||
| None | 877 (34.8) | 636 (33.9)** | Reference | |
| NSSF | 666 (26.4) | 433 (23.1) | 0.91 (0.76; 1.10) | 0.3 |
| COOP | 156 (6.2) | 114 (6.1) | 0.80 (0.60; 1.08) | 0.1 |
| Private | 702 (27.8) | 561 (29.9) | 1.17 (0.98; 1.39) | 0.08 |
| 2 plans or more | 122 (4.8) | 130 (6.9) | 1.50 (1.10; 2.04) | 0.01 |
| In contact with a confirmed COVID casea | ||||
| No | 2465 (97.7) | 1753 (93.5)*** | Reference | 0.01 |
| Yes | 58 (2.3) | 121 (6.5) | 1.69 (1.13; 2.52) | |
| In contact with a suspected COVID casea | ||||
| No | 2412 (95.6) | 1688 (90.1)*** | Reference | 0.006 |
| Yes | 111 (4.4) | 186 (9.9) | 1.53 (1.13; 2.08) | |
| Body weight status during lockdown | ||||
| Decreased | 495 (19.6) | 434 (23.2)*** | Reference | |
| Increased | 653 (25.9) | 727 (38.8) | 1.24 (1.03; 1.50) | 0.03 |
| No change | 1375 (54.5) | 713 (38) | 0.65 (0.54; 0.77) | <0.001 |
| Consuming fruits and vegetables during lockdown | ||||
| No | 523 (20.7) | 487 (26)*** | Reference | 0.3 |
| Yes | 2000 (79.3) | 1387 (74) | 0.92 (0.78; 1.08) | |
| Drinking 2L of water or more/day during lockdown | ||||
| No | 1056 (41.9) | 924 (49.3)*** | Reference | <0.001 |
| Yes | 1467 (58.1) | 950 (50.7) | 0.74 (0.64; 0.85) | |
| Physical activity during lockdown (per week) | ||||
| No | 1099 (43.6) | 913 (48.7)*** | Reference | |
| 2 to 3 times | 941 (37.3) | 707 (37.7) | 1.04 (0.89; 1.21) | 0.6 |
| More than 3 times | 483 (19.1) | 254 (13.6) | 0.74 (0.60; 0.90) | 0.003 |
| Likelihood to contract COVID-19 | ||||
| Not likely or not very likely | 1097 (43.5) | 799 (42.6) | – | |
| Somewhat or very likely | 836 (33.1) | 660 (35.2) | ||
| Don’t know | 590 (23.4) | 415 (22.1) | ||
| Likelihood of surviving if infected with COVID-19 | ||||
| Not likely or not very likely | 944 (37.4) | 818 (43.6)*** | Reference | |
| Somewhat or very likely | 1576 (62.5) | 1051 (56.1) | 0.74 (0.64; 0.85) | <0.001 |
| Don’t know | 3 (0.1) | 5 (0.3) | 3.06 (0.57; 16.3) | 0.2 |
| Worrying about family members getting COVID-19 infection | ||||
| Not worried or not very worried | 518 (20.5) | 401 (21.4) | – | |
| Somewhat or very worried | 1943 (77) | 1407 (75.1) | ||
| No family members | 62 (2.5) | 66 (3.5) | ||
aOR: adjusted odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; HCW: healthcare workers; USD: United States Dollars; NSSF: National Social Security Fund; COOP: Cooperatives; COVID-19: Coronavirus Diseases 2019. For the bivariate analysis: *Significant at P < 0.05, **Significant at P < 0.01, ***Significant at P < 0.001.
a
In the past 14 days.