Table 2.
Relationships Between Hearing Loss, Sociodemographic Characteristics, and Depression During Follow-up
| Depression During Follow-up | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Z | p Value | |
| Baseline hearing status | ||||
| No Hearing Loss (ref.) | 1.00 | |||
| Treated Hearing Loss | 1.26 | 1.04–1.54 | 2.34 | .02 |
| Untreated Hearing Loss | 1.10 | 0.90–1.35 | 0.94 | .35 |
| Depression* at baseline | 14.47 | 12.37–16.93 | 33.39 | <.0001 |
| Age | ||||
| 60–69 (ref.) | 1.00 | |||
| 70–79 | 1.19 | 1.02–1.39 | 2.17 | .03 |
| 80–89 | 1.58 | 1.32–1.89 | 4.91 | <.0001 |
| ≥90 | 2.58 | 1.87–3.56 | 5.78 | <.0001 |
| Female | 1.15 | 1.00–1.32 | 2.03 | .04 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White (ref.) | 1.00 | |||
| Non-Hispanic African American | 0.74 | 0.60–0.91 | −2.91 | .0036 |
| Hispanic | 1.27 | 0.97–1.66 | 1.77 | .08 |
| Non-Hispanic Asian | 1.15 | 0.75–1.78 | 0.64 | .53 |
| Other | 0.94 | 0.51–1.75 | −0.18 | .85 |
| Years of schooling† | 0.96 | 0.94–0.99 | −3.22 | .0013 |
| APOE genotype | ||||
| Lowest risk (no ε4 alleles) (ref.) | 1.00 | |||
| Intermediate (1 ε4 allele) | 1.00 | 0.85–1.17 | −0.03 | .98 |
| High risk (2 ε4 alleles) | 0.96 | 0.64–1.43 | −0.19 | .85 |
| Time from baseline to follow-up visit (months) | 1.0027 | 1.0011–1.0043 | 3.24 | .0012 |
Notes: CI = confidence interval.
*Depression = 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) ≥ 5.
†Years of schooling measured as a continuous variable (range 0–29).