Figure 3.

Schematic representation of TNF-α function in osteoarthritis pathogenesis. TNF-α can bind to two receptors, TNRF-1 and TNRF-2. By binding to TNRF-1, TNF-α can induce two different signaling complexes. Complex 1 leads to the stimulation of cell survival and the expression of NF-κB, MAPK and AP-1, which results in proteoglycan degradation, collagen disruption and the inhibition of proteoglycan and collagen synthesis. On the other hand, the activation of complex 2 leads to a cascade of reactions, which include the formation of FADD and the activation of procaspase 8/10 and caspase 3, which consequently leads to cell apoptosis. Additionally, the binding of TNF-α to TNRF-2 activates NF-κB and JNK. In summation, TNF-α leads to degeneration of cartilage and other joint structures, thus contributing to the onset and progression of osteoarthritis. TNF-α—tumor necrosis factor α; TNRF-1—Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1; TNRF-2—Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2; TRADD—TNFR-1 associated death domain protein; RIP-1—receptor interacting protein-1; TRAF-2—TNF receptor-associated factor-2; MAPK—mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK—extracellular signal-regulated kinases; JNK—c-Jun N-terminal kinases; NF-κB—nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; AP-1—activator protein 1; FADD—Fas-associated death domain protein.