Table 8.

Studies of the gut microbiota in chronic kidney disease (CKD) in humans.

Reference	Authors	Year	Patient Group	Study Findings in Diseased Group vs. Control
[144]	Jiang et al.	2017	52 with ESKD vs. 60 healthy	Switch from Prevotella (enterotype 2) to Bacteroides (enterotype 1) was associated with a reduction of butyrate-producing bacteria.
[19]	Xu et al.	2017	32 CKD vs.32 healthy	Reduced bacterial diversity. The levels of opportunistic pathogens from gamma-proteobacteria were increased. However, beneficial microbes like Coprococcus, Roseburia, and Ruminococcaceae were decreased. Impaired renal function and gut microbiota dysbiosis increased plasma concentrations of trimethylamine-N-oxide involved in cardiovascular disease.
[145]	Salgado et al.	2016	Pediatric patients; 8 on peritoneal dialysis, 8 hemodialysis 10 post kidney transplants vs. 13 healthy	Lower bacterial species richness was demonstrated in peritoneal dialysis and post-transplant patients compared with healthy individuals and patients on hemodialysis.
[140]	Jiang et al.	2016	65 CKD (Stage 1–5) vs. 20 healthy	Reduced butyrate-producing bacteria Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Roseburia spp. with a mild reduction in kidney function in comparison with healthy individuals.
[133]	Yang et al.	2015	7 Hypertensive patients vs. 10 healthy	Reduced bacterial diversity. Increased Firmicutes: Bacteroidetes ratio.
[146]	Wong et al.	2014	24 patients with ESKD undergoing hemodialysis vs. 12 healthy	Expansion in the bacterial families that possess uricase, urease, indole, and p-cresol–forming enzymes and a reduction in bacterial families with butyrate-forming capability compared with healthy individuals.
[134]	Vaziri et al.	2013	24 patients with ESKD undergoing hemodialysis vs. 12 healthy	Difference in the abundance of ca. 190 microbial operational taxonomic units (OTU) when the gut microbiota was compared to healthy controls.
[147]	I. Wang et al.	2012	29 patients with ESKD undergoing PD vs. 41 healthy	Abundances of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus spp. (B. Catenulatum, B. longum, B. bifidum, L. plantarum, and L. paracasei) were reduced compared with healthy individuals.
[148]	Wang et al.	2012	30 patients with ESKD not on dialysis vs. 10 healthy	Bacterial DNA detected in the blood of 20% of patients. Bacterial genera identified in the patient’s blood were overgrown in the guts of the same patients.
[141]	Ranganathan et al.	2009	13 patients with CKD (Stage 3 and 4)	Decreased levels of culturable anaerobic bacteria were shown in the feces of patients with CKD compared to healthy controls.
[142]	Fukuuchi et al.	2002	27 patients with chronic kidney failure and 20 patients with hemodialysis vs. 12 healthy controls	Culturable aerobic bacteria levels were increased in the feces of patients with CKD, not yet on dialysis, when compared with healthy adults.
[143]	Hida et al.	1996	ESKD patients 20 with hemodialysis vs. 12 healthy controls	Aerobic bacteria, including the Enterococci and Enterobacteria species, were increased in quantity in patients with ESKD compared with healthy controls.