Figure 2.

Ingenuity Pathway Analysis reveals interaction between bioactive components in spices and inflammation of the airway. Two possible mechanisms depicted through which active components from commonly used spices could help mitigate airway inflammation in COVID-19. One pathway involves inhibiting major pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukins (CXCL8 (IL8), IL6, IL10), and chemokine CCL2; blocking inflammatory signal onset by inhibiting TLR (toll-like receptors) or inhibiting ICAM-1 (intercellular adhesion molecule 1) dependent migration of immune cells to the site of inflammation. Another way bioactive components could maintain inflammatory homeostasis is by targeting the oxidative stress pathway via activation of NFE2L2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; Nrf2) and HMOX1(heme oxygenase 1). Synergistic effects of spices could also be evaluated, for example, between piperine and curcumin in attenuation of COVID-19 linked hyperinflammatory response. The name of major spice source(s) for the bioactive components are mentioned in boxes (pink). Interactive network constructed using Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software (Qiagen Inc., Germantown, MD). Arrow-head indicates activation; bar-head indicates inhibition. Prediction legend indicates the relationship between molecules.