Table 1.
Characteristics and pregnancy outcomes according to glycaemic status.
| Available Data | Total | No HIP | eGDM | eDIP | GDM | DIP | Global Comparison p-Value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n = 4665 | n = 3563 | n = 502 | n = 26 | n = 545 | n = 29 | |||
| Screening for HIP before 22 WG | ||||||||
| Fasting plasma glucose (mmol/L) | n = 4238 | 4.6 (0.6) | 4.5 (0.3) | 5.4 (0.4) ab | 11.6 (3.4) a | 4.6 (0.3) a | 4.6 (0.3) | <0.0001 |
| Gestational age at HIP screening (WG) | n = 4258 | 12.2 (4.2) | 12.2 (4.2) | 11.7 (4.5) | 11.6 (0.7) | 12.6 (4.1) | 13.7 (4.5) | 0.007 |
| Screening with OGTT at 22 WG or later | ||||||||
| Fasting plasma glucose (mmol/L) | n = 3760 | 4.4 (0.5) | 4.3 (0.4) | - | - | 4.9 (0.6) a | 5.3 (1.0) ac | <0.0001 |
| 1-h plasma glucose (mmol/L) | n = 3728 | 7.0 (1.8) | 6.6 (1.5) | - | - | 9.3 (1.7) a | 11.0 (2.4) ac | <0.0001 |
| 2-h plasma glucose (mmol/L) | n = 3734 | 6.1 (1.5) | 5.8 (1.1) | - | - | 8.0 (1.6) a | 11.6 (1.9) ac | <0.0001 |
| Gestational age at OGTT (WG) | n = 4033 | 27.3 (3.0) | 27.2 (3.0) | - | - | 27.7 (3.3) a | 27.6 (3.6) | <0.0001 |
| Metabolic characteristics | ||||||||
| Age (years) | n = 4665 | 30.7 (5.5) | 30.2 (5.4) | 32.6 (5.3) a | 33.3 (5.4) a | 32.1 (5.5) a | 32.6 (5.2) | <0.0001 |
| Pre-pregnancy body mass index (kg/m2) | n = 4515 | 25.2 (5.1) | 24.7 (4.8) | 28.0 (5.9) ab | 27.7 (6.6) a | 26.2 (5.4) a | 27.7 (3.8) ac | <0.0001 |
| Pre-pregnancy obesity | n = 4515 | 833 (18.5) | 531 (15.4) | 170 (34.9) ab | 8 (32.0) | 115 (21.9) a | 9 (33.3) | <0.0001 |
| Pre-pregnancy hypertension | n = 4665 | 39 (0.9) | 20 (0.6) | 9 (1.8) | 1 (3.9) | 9 (1.7) | 0 (0) | 0.0027 |
| Family history of diabetes | n = 4665 | 1291 (27.7) | 892 (25.0) | 204 (40.6) ab | 12 (46.2) | 175 (32.1) a | 8 (27.6) | <0.0001 |
| Employment at beginning of pregnancy | n = 4656 | 1887 (40.5) | 1483 (41.7) | 167 (33.3) a | 9 (34.6) | 217 (39.9) | 11 (37.9) | 0.0097 |
| Parity | n = 4665 | 2.1 (1.2) | 2.1 (1.2) | 2.3 (1.3) a | 2.5 (1.7) | 2.2 (1.3) | 1.8 (0.8) | 0.0001 |
| Previous pregnancy | ||||||||
| History of HIP | n = 4665 | <0.0001 * | ||||||
| First child | 1814 (38.9) | 1452 (40.8) | 147 (29.3) | 7 (26.9) | 195 (35.8) | 13 (44.8) | ||
| No | 2561 (54.9) | 2005 (56.3) | 260 (51.8) | 10 (38.5) | 273 (50.1) | 13 (44.8) | ||
| Yes | 290 (6.2) | 106 (3.00) | 95 (18.9) | 9 (34.6) | 77 (14.1) | 3 (10.3) | ||
| History of large for gestational age infant | n = 4665 | <0.0001 * | ||||||
| First child | 1814 (38.9) | 1452 (40.8) | 147 (29.3) | 7 (26.9) | 195 (35.8) | 13 (44.8) | ||
| No | 2688 (57.6) | 2012 (56.5) | 326 (64.9) | 15 (57.7) | 322 (59.1) | 13 (44.8) | ||
| Yes | 163 (3.5) | 99 (2.8) | 29 (5.8) a | 4 (15.4) a | 28 (5.1) a | 3 (10.3) | ||
| History of hypertensive disorders | n = 4665 | 0.0104 * | ||||||
| First pregnancy | 1265 (27.1) | 1018 (28.6) | 96 (19.1) | 6 (23.1) | 139 (25.5) | 6 (20.7) | ||
| No | 3281 (70.3) | 2462 (69.1) | 383 (76.3) | 18 (69.2) | 395 (72.5) | 23 (79.3) | ||
| Yes | 119 (2.6) | 83 (2.3) | 23 (4.6) a | 2 (7.7) | 11 (2.0) | 0 (0) | ||
| History of foetal death | n = 4665 | 0.0418 * | ||||||
| First pregnancy | 1265 (27.1) | 1018 (28.6) | 96 (19.1) | 6 (23.1) | 139 (25.5) | 6 (20.7) | ||
| No | 3307 (70.9) | 2485 (69.7) | 391 (77.9) | 19 (73.1) | 391 (71.7) | 21 (72.4) | ||
| Yes | 93 (2.0) | 60 (1.7) | 15 (3.0) | 1 (3.9) | 15 (2.8) | 2 (6.9) | ||
| Smoking during pregnancy | n = 4665 | 284 (6.1) | 245 (6.9) | 22 (4.4) | 1 (3.9) | 16 (2.9) a | 0 (0) | 0.0012 |
| Ethnicity | n = 4656 | <0.0001 | ||||||
| European | 1269 (27.3) | 1042 (29.3) | 94 (18.8) | 3 (11.5) | 121 (22.2) | 9 (31.0) | ||
| African | 881 (18.9) | 709 (19.9) | 80 (16.0) | 5 (19.2) | 83 (15.3) | 4 (13.8) | ||
| North African | 1378 (29.6) | 970 (27.3) | 192 (38.3) | 10 (38.5) | 196 (36.0) | 10 (34.5) | ||
| Asian | 96 (2.1) | 70 (2.00) | 10 (2.00) | 1 (3.9) | 14 (2.6) | 1 (3.5) | ||
| Caribbean | 270 (5.8) | 222 (6.2) | 23 (4.6) | 1 (3.9) | 24 (4.4) | 0 (0) | ||
| Indian-Pakistan-Sri Lankan | 519 (11.2) | 346 (9.7) | 82 (16.4) | 6 (23.1) | 80 (14.7) | 5 (17.2) | ||
| Other | 243 (5.2) | 197 (5.5) | 20 (4.0) | 0 (0) | 26 (4.8) | 0 (0) | ||
| Maternal outcomes | ||||||||
| Gestational weight gain (kg) | n = 4316 | 11.1 (5.5) | 11.5 (5.5) | 9.0 (5.4) ab | 8.3 (4.7) a | 10.4 (5.3) a | 10.1 (5.0) | <0.0001 |
| Insulin therapy during pregnancy | n = 1100 | 408 (37.1) | - | 231 (46.0) b | 23 (88.5) | 139 (25.5) | 15 (51.7) c | <0.0001 |
| Caesarean section | n = 4665 | 1038 (22.3) | 750 (21.1) | 139 (27.7) a | 7 (26.9) | 131 (24.0) | 11 (37.9) | 0.0019 |
| Gestational hypertension | n = 4665 | 126 (2.7) | 87 (2.4) | 26 (5.2) ab | 2 (7.7) | 8 (1.5) | 3 (10.3) ac | <0.0001 |
| Preeclampsia | n = 4665 | 90 (1.9) | 66 (1.9) | 9 (1.8) | 1 (3.9) | 11 (2.0) | 3 (10.3) a | 0.0211 |
| Hypertensive disorders during pregnancy | n = 4665 | 214 (4.6) | 151 (4.2) | 35 (7.0) a | 3 (11.5) | 19 (3.5) | 6 (20.7) ac | <0.0001 |
| Neonatal outcomes | ||||||||
| Birthweight (g) | n = 4665 | 3294 (515) | 3285 (508) | 3335 (522) | 3271 (573) | 3321 (541) | 3271 (643) | 0.1984 |
| Large-for-gestational-age infant | n = 4665 | 468 (10.0) | 325 (9.1) | 60 (12.0) | 4 (15.4) | 76 (13.9) a | 3 (10.3) | 0.0039 |
| Small-for-gestational-age infant | n = 4665 | 448 (9.6) | 347 (9.7) | 48 (9.6) | 1 (3.9) | 48 (8.8) | 4 (13.8) | 0.7259 |
| Gestational age at birth (weeks of gestation) | n = 4665 | 39.7 (1.6) | 39.7 (1.6) | 39.5 (1.6) | 38.7 (1.9) a | 39.4 (1.6) a | 39.0 (2.1) | <0.0001 |
| Preterm delivery (<37 weeks of gestation) | n = 4665 | 259 (5.6) | 173 (4.9) | 38 (7.6) | 4 (15.4) a | 39 (7.2) | 5 (17.2) | 0.0002 |
| Neonatal hypoglycaemia | n = 4665 | 29 (0.6) | 12 (0.3) | 6 (1.2) a | 0 (0) | 8 (1.5) a | 3 (10.3) a | <0.0001 |
| Neonatal death and stillbirth | n = 4665 | 18 (0.4) | 14 (0.4) | 2 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (0.4) | 0 (0) | 0.0669 |
| Malformation | n = 4665 | 51 (1.1) | 32 (1.0) | 11 (2.2) a | 2 (7.7) a | 6 (1.1) | 0 (0) | 0.0014 |
Data are n (%) or mean (standard deviation). DIP—late-diagnosed (i.e., ≥22 weeks of gestation) diabetes in pregnancy; eDIP—early-diagnosed (i.e., <22 weeks of gestation) diabetes in pregnancy; eGDM—early-diagnosed gestational diabetes mellitus; GDM—late-diagnosed gestational diabetes mellitus; HIP—hyperglycaemia in pregnancy. a Significant difference after Bonferroni correction for the comparison of each group of HIP with no-HIP. b Significant difference after Bonferroni correction for the comparison between eGDM and GDM. c Significant difference after Bonferroni correction for the comparison between DIP and GDM. * “Yes” versus “No” or “First child”.