Table 1.
Potential BNC-based biomaterials for dental and bone tissue regeneration.
| Composition | Scaffold Form | Cell/Drug/Biomolecule | Features | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| BNC | Membrane | NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells | Suitable biocompatibility and enhanced cell viability, remarkably formation of large new bone area | [99] |
| BNC | Membrane | Low biocompatibility and large amount of mature connective tissue in filling the defect (adult male rat) | [100] | |
| BNC | Nanofibrous | BMP-2, C2C12 cells | Suitable biocompatibility and osteogenic differentiation of fibroblast-like cells, and BNC scaffold with BMP-2 exhibited more bone formation and higher calcium content than that of BNC only | [92] |
| BNC | Micro-/nanofibrous | Osteoblasts and fibroblasts, BMP-2 | Promoted optimal bone formation and sustained release of BMP-2 | [28] |
| BNC | Macro-/micro-/nanofibrous | C3H10T1/2 cells, BMP-2 | Low dose of BMP-2 exhibited excellent cell adhesion and growth, remarkably improved bone matrix secretion and maturation, and facilitated the mineralization of cells to some extent | [98] |
| BNC | Nanofibrous | HASCs | Successful osteogenic differentiation of HASCs on BNC and tissue-repairing ability | [97] |
| BNC | Nanofibrous | L929 fibroblasts, doxycycline | Suitable biocompatibility and antibiotic efficiency against pathogenic oral bacteria | [101] |
| BNC/β-CD-CHX | Membrane | CHX | Ten-fold increase in release rate of CHX, all CHX-loaded membranes showed antibacterial activity, but BNC/β-CD-CHX exhibited greater inhibition zone | [104] |
| BNC/collagen | Fibrous | UCB-MSCs and NIH3T3 cells, BMP-2, dexamethasone | Favorable cell adhesion and growth, more up-regulated osteogenic markers and remarkably uplifted proteins and calcium deposition, and positive signals (α-smooth muscle actin) for neovascularization | [85] |
| BNC/collagen | 3D mesoporous microspheres | MC3T3-E1 cellsBMP-2 | High surface area, suitable biocompatibility, effective promotion of cell adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation | [128] |
| BNC/Gel | Nanofibrous | NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells | Decreased crystallinity and improved thermal stability, Enhanced Young’s modulus and decreased tensile strength, and excellent biocompatibility | [75] |
| BNC/MWCNTs | Nanofibrous | Osteoblastic cells (human inferior maxillary bone) | Excellent adhesion and proliferation of osteoblastic cells | [83] |
| BNC/fisetin | Nanofibrous | BMSCs | Suitable cytocompatibility with enhanced cell viability, differentiation of BMSCs to osteoblasts and promoted the expression of osteocalcin and osteopontin genes | [88] |
| BNC/otoliths | Stimulation of the formation of mineralized tissue barrier and reparative pulp reaction | [107] | ||
| BNC/goat bone apatite | 3D porous | L929 fibroblasts | Suitable bioactivity and stimulation of cell proliferation and differentiation | [108] |
| BNC/HAp | Nanofibrous | 3D porous network with homogenous precipitation of carbonated-HAp crystals on BC fibers | [129] | |
| BNC/HAp | Nanofibrous | 3D porous network with homogenous precipitation of carbonated-HAp crystals on BC fibers | [130] | |
| BNC/HAp | Nanofibrous | Oxidized-BNC/HAp is more bioactive and degradable than BNC/HAp and high glucose levels in BNC degradation | [79] | |
| BNC/HAp | Nanofibrous | Surface-treated carbon nanofibres (CNFs) (from BNC) showed enhanced biomineralization and changed morphology from needle-like to rod-like HAp formed on CNFs | [106] | |
| BNC/HAp-CNCs | Nanofibrous | CNCs-assisted dispersibility of HAp exhibited promising results | [115] | |
| BNC/HAp-CNCs | Nanofibrous | L929 fibroblasts | Suitable dispersibility and had less effect of HAp/CNCs on crystallinity, whereas slight increase in thermal stability, and suitable cytocompatibility | [116] |
| BNC/MNPs/HAp | Nanofibrous | MC3T3-E1 cells | Enhanced mechanical and physiochemical properties, superparamagnetic and remarkable thermal stability, and significant cell adhesion and proliferation | [113] |
| BNC/HAp/Sr and BNC/SrAp | Porous membrane | L929 fibroblasts | Oxidized-BNC/SrAp exhibited improved degradation under physiological conditions with suitable cytocompatibility, low inflammatory reaction, and enhanced connective tissue repair, including degradation (in vivo) | [80] |
| BNC/HAp/Sr and BNC/SrAp | Porous membrane | L929 fibroblasts | Oxidized-BNC/SrAp exhibited improved degradation under physiological conditions with suitable cytocompatibility, low inflammatory reaction, and enhanced connective tissue repair, including degradation (in vivo) | [80] |
| BNC-PVP/HAp (in situ using SBF) | Nanofibrous | Improved apatite formation ability of BNC with higher HAp deposition | [131] | |
| BNC-PA-Gel/HAp | Nanofibrous | MSCs | Excellent cellular compatibility and bone-like properties | [122] |
| BNC-PA-Gel/HAp | Fibrous structure | hBMSCs and rBMSCs | Excellent mechanical properties and cytocompatiblity (adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation), and high new bone formation | [123] |
| BNC-HAp/BC-GAG | Bilayer | Osteosarcoma cells, hADMSCs, and human articular chondrocytes | Suitable tissue ingrowth and no adverse immunological responses, progressive regeneration of cartilage tissue, ECM deposition, and subchondral bone regeneration, and remarkably higher mineral density and volume ratio of bone to tissue | [118] |
| BNC-Gel/HAp | Nanofibrous | Oxidation of BNC and increased content of Gel induced the formation of tiny HAp crystallites and Gel (0.3 wt%)-incorporated composite system exhibited promising effects | [119] | |
| BNC-Gel/HAp | Nanofibrous | Calvarial osteoblasts | Excellent mechanical properties and improved cell proliferation and differentiation | [76] |
| BNC-Gel/HAp | Nanofibrous | rBMSCs | Rough surface morphology, enhanced mechanical properties, better adhesion, and higher proliferation and differentiation of cells | [120] |
| BNC-boron-doped HAp/Gel | 3D porous | Saos-2 cells | Suitable degradation rate and in vitro bioactivity, excellent cytocompatibility, and intracellular calcium deposition | [124] |
| BNC-CMC/HAp (in situ using SBF) | Nanofibrous | Osteoprogenitor cells (MC3T3-E1) | Calcium-deficient HAp enhanced BNC fibril density and improved cell attachment and growth | [74] |
| BNC/Alg-CS-Gel/HAp | MC3T3-E1 cells, RGD | Suitable 3D structure with well-defined porous network, enhanced compressive properties, and remarkable biocompatibility | [77] | |
| BNC-β-glucan/HAp-GO | 3D porous | MC3T3-E1 cells | Suitable mechanical and antibacterial properties, significant cell adhesion and proliferation | [84] |
| BNC/CPs | Nanofibrous | AFSCs | BNC was used as template and calcinated to prepare 3D calcium phosphate-based scaffold as bioactive filler or bone tissue regeneration with suitable biocompatibility and bioactivity | [93] |
| BNC/CPs | Membrane | CHO-K1 cells | Suitable deposition of calcium phosphate and wettability, and suitable cytocompatibility | [117] |
| BNC/CPs | 3D fibrous | Suitable intrinsic magnetic properties for effective cell adhesion and growth | [95] | |
| BNC/cerium-doped-CPs | Nanofibrous | GM07492 human fibroblasts | Achieved trabecular morphology with interconnected pores and suitable cell viability | [111] |
| BNC/CPs/barium titanate (CaO-BaO-P2O5/TiO2) | 3D porous | hMSCs | Only crystalline phase emerged as TiO2 in 3D structure and exhibited no cytotoxic effect | [61] |
| BNC/CPs/BaTiO3 | 3D fibrous | MSCs | BNC-acted as sacrificial template and scaffold exhibited suitable biocompatibility | [96] |
| BNC/BG | Vero cells | Improved BNC yield with enhanced biocompatibility and antimicrobial properties | [81] | |
| BNC/BG | Nanofibrous | BNC was used as template and calcinated to prepare highly bioactive 3D nanofibrous BG-based scaffold with high bioactivity | [93] | |
| BNC/BG | Nanofibrous | Eeffective absorption of deposited CaO and SiO2 precursors on the surface of BNC, 3D porous interconnected-NBG nanofibrous scaffolds, and higher bioactivity | [94] | |
| BNC/mesoporous BG | Nanofibrous | hBMSCs, rhBMP-2 | A sustained release of rhBMP-2 for 28 days and enhanced cell proliferation and osteogenic-related gene expression | [82] |
| BNC/silicate glass | 3D structure | MSCs | The behavior of BNC with silicate glasses (cements) exhibited enhanced features, especially in terms of setting time (i.e., faster) and biological properties as cell survival and accelerated cell proliferation | [120] |
| BNC-PVA/hexagonal boron nitride | Microporous (printed) | human osteoblast cells | Well-defined porous structure with significantly enhanced cell viability and mechanical properties | [73] |
| BNC-Alg/LAP | Microporous (printed) | L929 fibroblast cells, BSA | Excellent printability, improved stability of printed hydrogel with sustained and long-term protein delivery due to nanoclay | [78] |