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. 2021 Aug 2;7:58. doi: 10.1038/s41378-021-00284-9

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 5 — a The dimension of the printing unit is limited by the nozzle size. b The cross-sectional structure of the FDM-printed PLA objects comprises bonded PLA lines and voids between successive layers. c Reptation model depicting the behavior of PLA molecular chains during the interfacial diffusion process, where t_r represents the tube relaxation or disengagement time