Table 3. Adjusted Odds Ratios for Nonprescribed Substances.
| Characteristic | Adjusted odds ratios (95% CI)a | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Marijuana | Alcohol | Cocaine | Methamphetamine | Heroin | Fentanyl | Methadone | Hydrocodone | Oxycodone | Tramadol | Benzodiazepines | Gabapentin | |
| Sex | ||||||||||||
| Female | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Male | 1.53 (1.47-1.58) | 1.29 (1.22-1.35) | 1.13 (1.07-1.18) | 1.04 (0.99-1.10) | 1.11 (1.04-1.19) | 1.13 (1.06-1.21) | 0.91 (0.82-1.01) | 0.72 (0.67-0.78) | 0.84 (0.79-0.89) | 0.84 (0.76-0.93) | 0.83 (0.80-0.87) | 0.72 (0.67-0.78) |
| Age, y | ||||||||||||
| 18-24 | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| 25-34 | 0.59 (0.56-0.63) | 1.27 (1.15-1.41) | 0.82 (0.76-0.89) | 0.99 (0.90-1.09) | 0.81 (0.73-0.90) | 0.77 (0.69-0.85) | 1.23 (1.00-1.52) | 1.15 (0.99-1.34) | 1.17 (1.04-1.31) | 1.34 (1.07-1.69) | 0.99 (0.92-1.07) | 0.96 (0.82-1.13) |
| 35-44 | 0.47 (0.44-0.51) | 1.43 (1.28-1.59) | 0.72 (0.66-0.78) | 0.96 (0.87-1.06) | 0.59 (0.53-0.66) | 0.56 (0.50-0.63) | 1.44 (1.17-1.80) | 1.48 (1.27-1.73) | 1.27 (1.13-1.43) | 1.59 (1.27-2.01) | 1.07 (0.98-1.15) | 1.19 (1.02-1.41) |
| 45-54 | 0.35 (0.33-0.38) | 1.69 (1.51-1.90) | 0.70 (0.63-0.77) | 0.72 (0.64-0.82) | 0.51 (0.44-0.58) | 0.50 (0.43-0.57) | 1.43 (1.13-1.82) | 1.67 (1.42-1.98) | 1.33 (1.16-1.51) | 1.88 (1.48-2.42) | 1.16 (1.07-1.27) | 1.43 (1.20-1.71) |
| ≥55 | 0.28 (0.26-0.31) | 1.81 (1.60-2.06) | 0.49 (0.43-0.55) | 0.47 (0.41-0.55) | 0.35 (0.29-0.42) | 0.46 (0.39-0.54) | 1.38 (1.05-1.81) | 1.82 (1.52-2.19) | 1.42 (1.22-1.64) | 1.83 (1.39-2.41) | 1.23 (1.12-1.36) | 1.40 (1.15-1.70) |
| US Census division | ||||||||||||
| East North Central | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| East South Central | 0.70 (0.66-0.75) | 0.95 (0.85-1.06) | 0.33 (0.29-0.37) | 2.11 (1.92-2.31) | 0.26 (0.20-0.32) | 0.38 (0.33-0.44) | 1.20 (0.95-1.50) | 2.40 (2.13-2.71) | 1.04 (0.93-1.17) | 0.61 (0.49-0.76) | 1.25 (1.17-1.34) | 1.18 (1.06-1.32) |
| Mid-Atlantic | 0.89 (0.83-0.95) | 1.04 (0.94-1.15) | 0.84 (0.77-0.91) | 0.67 (0.58-0.77) | 0.97 (0.86-1.08) | 0.65 (0.58-0.74) | 1.41 (1.14-1.72) | 0.88 (0.75-1.01) | 1.01 (0.91-1.12) | 0.69 (0.57-0.84) | 1.29 (1.20-1.38) | 0.96 (0.83-1.09) |
| Mountain | 0.92 (0.85-0.99) | 1.15 (1.04-1.27) | 0.40 (0.35-0.45) | 2.22 (2.01-2.45) | 1.39 (1.23-1.58) | 0.16 (0.13-0.19) | 1.35 (1.05-1.71) | 1.09 (0.91-1.29) | 0.94 (0.82-1.08) | 0.74 (0.59-0.92) | 1.16 (1.07-1.27) | 0.89 (0.75-1.04) |
| New England | 1.84 (1.72-1.97) | 1.64 (1.50-1.79) | 1.05 (0.96-1.14) | 0.52 (0.44-0.62) | 0.50 (0.42-0.59) | 1.19 (1.07-1.33) | 2.30 (1.87-2.82) | 0.40 (0.31-0.51) | 0.86 (0.75-0.97) | 0.39 (0.28-0.51) | 1.21 (1.12-1.31) | 0.90 (0.77-1.05) |
| Pacific | 1.24 (1.17-1.32) | 1.27 (1.17-1.38) | 0.30 (0.27-0.33) | 4.60 (4.27-4.95) | 2.67 (2.44-2.93) | 0.15 (0.13-0.17) | 1.66 (1.36-2.02) | 1.30 (1.14-1.49) | 0.69 (0.61-0.78) | 0.54 (0.44-0.66) | 0.99 (0.92-1.07) | 0.53 (0.43-0.64) |
| South Atlantic | 1.05 (1.00-1.11) | 1.34 (1.24-1.45) | 1.13 (1.06-1.21) | 1.24 (1.13-1.35) | 0.95 (0.86-1.05) | 0.76 (0.69-0.83) | 2.27 (1.94-2.65) | 1.10 (0.98-1.24) | 1.45 (1.33-1.58) | 0.78 (0.67-0.90) | 1.32 (1.24-1.40) | 0.81 (0.71-0.92) |
| West North Central | 0.89 (0.80-0.98) | 0.80 (0.68-0.93) | 0.15 (0.11-0.20) | 2.62 (2.30-2.98) | 0.74 (0.57-0.94) | 0.58 (0.47-0.71) | 1.90 (1.36-2.61) | 1.19 (0.91-1.54) | 0.93 (0.74-1.15) | 1.06 (0.78-1.41) | 1.24 (1.08-1.41) | 0.95 (0.73-1.23) |
| West South Central | 0.75 (0.66-0.84) | 1.32 (1.11-1.57) | 0.29 (0.23-0.36) | 2.46 (2.08-2.90) | 0.47 (0.34-0.63) | 0.11 (0.07-0.18) | 0.80 (0.48-1.25) | 2.41 (2.00-2.89) | 0.62 (0.50-0.77) | 0.92 (0.66-1.24) | 1.43 (1.26-1.62) | 0.71 (0.53-0.94) |
| Health care practice specialty | ||||||||||||
| Substance use treatment | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Behavioral health | 1.03 (0.98-1.08) | 1.05 (0.99-1.12) | 0.74 (0.69-0.80) | 0.85 (0.79-0.91) | 0.80 (0.72-0.87) | 0.64 (0.59-0.71) | 1.18 (1.02-1.36) | 0.76 (0.71-0.82) | 0.85 (0.78-0.92) | 0.96 (0.82-1.11) | 0.95 (0.90-1.00) | 1.26 (1.15-1.39) |
| Primary care | 1.10 (1.05-1.15) | 1.20 (1.12-1.28) | 0.84 (0.79-0.89) | 0.82 (0.77-0.87) | 0.95 (0.88-1.03) | 0.56 (0.51-0.61) | 1.08 (0.95-1.22) | 0.95 (0.90-1.00) | 1.01 (0.94-1.08) | 0.85 (0.73-0.98) | 0.96 (0.92-1.01) | 0.79 (0.72-0.87) |
| Payer group | ||||||||||||
| Private insurance | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Medicaid | 1.33 (1.27-1.39) | 0.67 (0.63-0.71) | 1.31 (1.23-1.39) | 1.95 (1.82-2.10) | 1.42 (1.31-1.54) | 1.20 (1.11-1.31) | 1.28 (1.12-1.47) | 0.74 (0.67-0.81) | 0.78 (0.73-0.84) | 1.20 (1.05-1.38) | 0.96 (0.91-1.00) | 1.94 (1.74-2.17) |
| Medicare | 1.29 (1.20-1.40) | 0.65 (0.58-0.72) | 1.16 (1.05-1.29) | 1.67 (1.48-1.88) | 1.01 (0.86-1.18) | 0.99 (0.85-1.14) | 1.16 (0.92-1.44) | 0.96 (0.83-1.11) | 0.86 (0.76-0.97) | 1.24 (1.00-1.53) | 1.29 (1.19-1.40) | 2.07 (1.78-2.41) |
| Uninsured | 1.22 (1.15-1.30) | 0.98 (0.90-1.06) | 1.10 (1.01-1.19) | 1.79 (1.63-1.97) | 0.96 (0.85-1.08) | 0.94 (0.84-1.05) | 1.09 (0.91-1.30) | 1.14 (1.02-1.28) | 0.97 (0.88-1.06) | 1.25 (1.05-1.50) | 1.03 (0.97-1.10) | 0.91 (0.77-1.07) |
| Collection year | ||||||||||||
| 2015 | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| 2016 | 1.13 (1.07-1.19) | 1.05 (0.98-1.14) | 1.11 (1.04-1.19) | 1.70 (1.55-1.88) | 0.93 (0.85-1.02) | 1.79 (1.60-1.99) | 1.04 (0.90-1.20) | 1.09 (0.99-1.21) | 1.08 (1.00-1.17) | 1.01 (0.87-1.18) | 1.04 (0.99-1.10) | 1.10 (0.95-1.27) |
| 2017 | 1.18 (1.12-1.25) | 0.99 (0.91-1.07) | 1.38 (1.28-1.49) | 2.18 (1.98-2.40) | 0.71 (0.64-0.79) | 2.39 (2.13-2.68) | 0.89 (0.75-1.06) | 0.97 (0.86-1.09) | 0.91 (0.82-1.00) | 1.22 (1.04-1.43) | 0.86 (0.81-0.92) | 1.06 (0.92-1.21) |
| 2018 | 1.37 (1.30-1.44) | 1.00 (0.92-1.07) | 1.14 (1.06-1.22) | 2.75 (2.52-2.99) | 0.72 (0.65-0.80) | 2.75 (2.47-3.06) | 0.82 (0.70-0.97) | 0.71 (0.63-0.80) | 0.63 (0.57-0.69) | 0.97 (0.83-1.14) | 0.70 (0.65-0.74) | 1.16 (1.03-1.31) |
| 2019 | 1.45 (1.37-1.53) | 0.98 (0.91-1.06) | 1.18 (1.09-1.27) | 3.60 (3.31-3.91) | 0.76 (0.69-0.84) | 4.02 (3.63-4.45) | 0.74 (0.62-0.88) | 0.55 (0.48-0.62) | 0.63 (0.57-0.70) | 0.69 (0.58-0.82) | 0.67 (0.63-0.71) | 1.21 (1.08-1.36) |
| Buprenorphine detection status | ||||||||||||
| Positive | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] | 1 [Reference] |
| Negative | 1.33 (1.27-1.39) | 1.24 (1.16-1.32) | 2.64 (2.50-2.78) | 2.14 (2.01-2.27) | 9.93 (9.31-10.59) | 6.71 (6.29-7.16) | 4.75 (4.26-5.29) | 5.11 (4.73-5.53) | 4.50 (4.23-4.79) | 3.69 (3.32-4.10) | 1.48 (1.41-1.56) | 1.05 (0.94-1.15) |
a
Adjusted odds ratios relative to reference level and 95% confidence intervals were estimated.