Table 1.

Relative Rate and 95% Confidence Interval of COVID-19 Mortality Rate for One Standard Deviation Increase in Non–Air Pollution Neighborhood-Level Variables

Covariates^* (SD)	Model A		Model B		Model C
Covariates^* (SD)	RR (95% CI)	VIF	RR (95% CI)	VIF	RR (95% CI)	VIF
COVID-19
Number of COVID-19 tests performed from February 29, 2020, to January 5, 2021 (11,729.64 tests)	1.08 (1.03–1.14)	1.3	1.05 (1.00–1.10)	1.5	1.05 (1.00–1.1)	1.6
Age-adjusted COVID-19 confirmed case rate from February 29, 2020, to January 5, 2021 (1,421.50 cases/100,000 persons)	1.22 (1.14–1.31)	2.4	1.24 (1.16–1.33)	3.0	1.24 (1.15–1.33)	3.2
Demographics
% of population age 45–65 yr (3.61%)	0.97 (0.91–1.04)	1.8	1.00 (0.93–1.06)	2.6	1.00 (0.94–1.07)	2.7
% of population age ≥65 yr (5.10%)	1.25 (1.17–1.35)	2.4	1.27 (1.18–1.36)	2.9	1.27 (1.18–1.36)	3.0
Female per 100 males (11.15 persons)	1.01 (0.94–1.07)	2.1	1.01 (0.95–1.07)	2.3	1.00 (0.95–1.07)	2.4
% of population that is Black/African American (24.80%)	1.19 (1.12–1.27)	2.1	1.15 (1.09–1.22)	2.5	1.13 (1.06–1.21)	3.4
% of population that is Hispanic/Latino (19.48%)	1.23 (1.14–1.33)	3.3	1.08 (0.99–1.17)	5.0	1.07 (0.98–1.17)	5.6
Population density (12,370.08 persons/km²)	0.97 (0.91–1.04)	2.2	0.98 (0.92–1.04)	2.5	0.98 (0.92–1.04)	2.6
Socioeconomic conditions
% of population of all ages living below the federal poverty level in the past 12 mo (9.67%)	—	—	1.10 (1.03–1.18)	3.0	1.11 (1.03–1.20)	4.4
% of civilian noninstitutionalized population with health insurance (3.83%)	—	—	0.88 (0.82–0.93)	2.6	0.87 (0.82–0.93)	2.7
% of occupied housing units with >1.00 occupant per room (4.89%)	—	—	1.00 (0.93–1.07)	3.8	0.99 (0.92–1.07)	4.6
Average household size (0.35 person)	—	—	0.94 (0.87–1.01)	3.5	0.93 (0.87–1.01)	3.6
Availability of adult ICU beds^† (1.00 beds/100,000 persons)	—	—	0.95 (0.88–1.04)	4.8	0.95 (0.87–1.04)	4.9
% of adult current smokers^‡ (3.00%)	—	—	—	—	0.99 (0.94–1.04)	1.8
% of obese adults^§ (8.71%)	—	—	—	—	1.02 (0.94–1.11)	4.5
Standardized incidence ratio of lung cancer (0.20)	—	—	—	—	0.98 (0.93–1.03)	1.7

Definition of abbreviations: CI = confidence interval; COVID-19 = coronavirus disease; MZCTA = modified ZIP code tabulation area; RR = relative rate; VIF = variance inflation factor.

All variables were adjusted for one another.

The covariates in this table were selected based on their potential role as confounders and correlation analysis. The following covariates were not included because they were highly correlated with the covariates in this table: percentage of population age 15–44 years; percentage of population that is Asian/Pacific islanders; percentage of population age ⩾25 years whose highest level of education is less than a high school diploma or General Education Development; median household income in the past 12 months; stroke hospitalization; preventable asthma hospitalization; poorly controlled diabetes; staffed beds; licensed beds.

^{^†}

$A_{MZCTA} \frac{\sum_{i}^{N} \sum_{k \in [d_{i, j} < 60 minutes]} R_{k} W_{k} P_{i}}{\sum_{i}^{N} P_{i}}$ . A_MZCTA is spatial availability of adult ICU beds at each MZCTA, N is the number of population unit (100 ft²) in that MZCTA, d_i,j is the travel time from the centroid of population unit i to the hospital j, R_j is the supply ratio of the hospital j, W_j is the weight by the theory of distance decay (10), and P_i is the number of people at population unit i. The supply ratio, $R_{j} = \frac{S_{j}}{\sum_{k \in D_{r}} P_{k} W_{k}}$ where S_j is the number of adult ICU beds and D_r is a set of travel time rings from the hospital j up to r minutes, where r is 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 60 minutes. The value of 1 mile/6 min was based on calculation of Vehicle Trip Distance and Duration reported in the Annual Report of Citywide Mobility Survey 2019 by the NYC Department of Transportation.

^{^‡}

Percentage of people aged ⩾18 years who report being current smokers (smoking ⩾100 cigarettes and now report smoking every day or some days) from NYC Community Health Profiles.

^{^§}

Percentage of people aged ⩾18 years with body mass index >30 from NYC Community Health Profiles.