FIGURE 1.

Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia (A), increased neuronal c‐fos expression (B), regulation of astrocytic, microglial, and neuronal biomarkers GFAP, Iba‐1, and NeuN (C), enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission (D‐F), and reduced inhibitory transmission (G‐I) in the ipsilateral spinal dorsal horns of neuropathic rats. Neuropathic rats were induced by ligation of spinal nerves. Representative images and quantitative measurement of immunofluorescence staining of astrocytic, microglial, and neuronal biomarkers GFAP, Iba‐1, and NeuN and double immunofluorescence staining of c‐fos/NeuN in the ipsilateral spinal dorsal horns of lamina II of sham and neuropathic rats. Scale bar, 200 μm. Representative recording traces of mEPSCs and mIPSCs and cumulative distribution and statistical analyses were obtained from the lamina II spinal dorsal horn neurons. The data are presented as the means ± SEM (n = 4–8 animals). *p < 0.05, by unpaired and two‐tailed Student's t test or repeated‐measures two‐way ANOVA followed by Sidak's post‐tests