Table 4.

The preventive effects of A. cepa and its constituents on lung cancer and lung infections.

Study type	Study design	Preparations	Dose	Effects	Ref.
	Rats exposed to nicotine	A. cepa oil	100 mg/kg b.w., 21 days	Increased CAT and SOD activity in the lung tissue	[101]
Exp	Mice	Qt	—	Decreased superoxide radicals and LPO; lung morphological changes	[110]
	Swiss albino male mice	Qt	—	Lowered the lipid peroxide levels	[111]
	Cell line NCI-H209	Qt glucuronides	—	Qt glucuronides inhibited proliferation through G2/M arrest of the cell cycle and induced apoptosis via caspase-3 cascade in the human lung cancer cell line NCI-H209	[99]
	Cat fish	A. cepa extract	1000 mg/ml	Antibacterial activity	[98]
	Mice	Ethanol extract	10 and 20 mg/ml	Antibacterial effect	[150]
	Mesocestoides corti infection in BALB/c mice	Qt	5.0–20.0  mg/kg, oral	Decreased peripheral blood eosinophilia and IgE hyperproduction	[135]
Clin	Lung cancer patients	A. cepa extracts	10 g L−1	Antiproliferative capacity; decreased mitotic indices	[98]
	Adenocarcinoma patients	Qt-rich food	—	Decreased lung cancer risk; upregulated GSTM1, GSTM2, GSTT2, and GSTP1; downregulated specific P450 genes	[102]
	Lung cancer patients	Qt-rich food	mg/100 g	Decreased carcinogenesis-related miR-146, miR-26, and miR-17 families	[151]
	DPT patients	Qt and QP	5 g in 100 mL saline	Reduction of the disease manifestation	[115]
	Cell line NCI-H209	Qt glucuronides	—	Qt glucuronides inhibited proliferation through G2/M arrest of the cell cycle and induced apoptosis via caspase-3 cascade in the human lung cancer cell line NCI-H209	[99]
	Clinical study	A. cepa aqueous extract	—	Antibacterial effect on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria; effect on A549 lung cancer cell lines	[100]
	Virus-infected patients	Inhaled onion, garlic extract	—	Improved all respiratory symptoms	[107]
	Clinical study	Vitamin C and Qt	30 or 40 mg/kg, 4 days	Treatment of respiratory tract infections with COVID-19	[112]
	Clinical study	Qt and NAC, nebulized	600 and 300 mg/mL for Qt and NAC	Decreased respiratory symptoms; antiviral in COVID-19 infection	[114]

Ref.: references, Exp: experimental, and Clin: clinical.