Table 2.
The association of loneliness and a feeling of increased social isolation with the prevalence/incidence of pain during the COVID-19 pandemic.
| Degree of loneliness | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| None (3 points) n = 14,277 |
Mild (4–5 points) n = 3250 |
Moderate-to-Severe (6–15 points) n = 7955 |
P for trend | |||
| Headache | ||||||
| Number with headache since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 2251 | 888 | 2848 | |||
| Number with headache developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 150 | 54 | 306 | |||
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
| Headache since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without headache | 1 | 1.92 (1.75–2.11)*** | 2.65 (2.47–2.83)*** | < 0.001 | ||
|
Headache developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without headache |
1 | 1.82 (1.33–2.49)*** | 4.10 (3.31–5.01)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Headache since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without headache | 1 | 1.78 (1.62–1.95)*** | 2.32 (2.16–2.49)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Headache developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without headache | 1 | 1.69 (1.23–2.33)** | 3.13 (2.53–3.88)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Neck or shoulder pain | ||||||
| Number with neck or shoulder pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 4972 | 1665 | 4166 | |||
| Number with neck or shoulder pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 204 | 65 | 333 | |||
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
| Neck or shoulder pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.94 (1.79–2.10)*** | 2.21 (2.09–2.35)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Neck or shoulder pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.86 (1.40–2.47)*** | 3.84 (3.20–4.60)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Neck or shoulder pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.78 (1.64–1.93)*** | 2.05 (1.93–2.19)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Neck or shoulder pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.69 (1.27–2.25)*** | 3.02 (2.48–3.66)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Upper limb pain | ||||||
| Number with upper limb pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 1736 | 596 | 1904 | |||
| Number with upper limb pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 161 | 49 | 253 | |||
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
| Upper limb pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.64 (1.48–1.82)*** | 2.71 (2.52–2.93)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Upper limb pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.42 (1.03–1.96)* | 3.28 (2.67–4.03)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Upper limb pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.53 (1.38–1.70)*** | 2.30 (2.13–2.50)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Upper limb pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.32 (0.95–1.83) | 2.57 (2.06–3.19)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Low back pain | ||||||
| Number with low back pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 3942 | 1298 | 3247 | |||
| Number with low back pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 194 | 65 | 275 | |||
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
| Low back pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.79 (1.65–1.94)*** | 2.11 (1.99–2.24)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Low back pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.78 (1.36–2.41)*** | 3.14 (2.59–3.81)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Low back pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.66 (1.53–1.80)*** | 1.95 (1.83–2.08)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Low back pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.67 (1.25–2.23)*** | 2.40 (1.95–2.95)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Leg pain | ||||||
| Number with leg pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 2030 | 666 | 1828 | |||
| Number with leg pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 136 | 46 | 195 | |||
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||||
| Leg pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.61 (1.45–1.77)*** | 2.37 (2.20–2.55)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Leg pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.60 (1.14–2.24)** | 3.23 (2.57–4.06)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Leg pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.52 (1.37–1.68)*** | 2.05 (1.89–2.22)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Leg pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.54 (1.09–2.16)* | 2.45 (1.92–3.13)*** | < 0.001 | ||
| Frequency of feelings of increased social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Never n = 18,168 | Rarely n = 3188 | Sometimes n = 2454 | Often n = 1033 | Always n = 639 | P for trend | |
| Headache | ||||||
| Number with headache since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 3586 | 966 | 768 | 398 | 269 | |
| Number with headache developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 231 | 63 | 88 | 74 | 54 | |
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||
| Headache since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without headache | 1 | 1.65 (1.51–1.80)*** | 1.55 (1.41–1.71)*** | 2.15 (1.87–2.47)*** | 2.55 (2.15–3.03)*** | < 0.001 |
| Headache developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without headache | 1 | 1.69 (1.27–2.24)*** | 2.70 (2.09–3.48)*** | 5.93 (4.48–7.85)*** | 7.66 (5.56–10.57)*** | < 0.001 |
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Headache since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without headache | 1 | 1.53 (1.40–1.68)*** | 1.48 (1.34–1.64)*** | 1.84 (1.58–2.13)*** | 2.08 (1.73–2.49)*** | < 0.001 |
| Headache developed during the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without headache | 1 | 1.41 (1.06–1.88)* | 2.16 (1.66–2.81)*** | 4.04 (3.00–5.45)*** | 5.21 (3.71–7.33)*** | < 0.001 |
| Neck or shoulder pain | ||||||
| Number with neck or shoulder pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 7162 | 1596 | 1152 | 554 | 339 | |
| Number with neck or shoulder pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 282 | 88 | 91 | 79 | 62 | |
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||
| Neck or shoulder pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.54 (1.42–1.66)*** | 1.37 (1.26–1.49)*** | 2.05 (1.79–2.35)*** | 2.09 (1.76–2.48)*** | < 0.001 |
| Neck or shoulder pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 2.13 (1.66–2.72)*** | 2.56 (2.00–3.27)*** | 6.46 (4.91–8.50)*** | 8.47 (6.22–11.53)*** | < 0.001 |
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Neck or shoulder pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.45 (1.34–1.57)*** | 1.42 (1.30–1.56)*** | 1.88 (1.63–2.17)*** | 1.84 (1.53–2.21)*** | < 0.001 |
| Neck or shoulder pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without neck or shoulder pain | 1 | 1.77 (1.38–2.27)*** | 2.11 (1.63–2.73)*** | 4.52 (3.37–6.04)*** | 5.97 (4.31–8.27)*** | < 0.001 |
| Upper limb pain | ||||||
| Number with upper limb pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 2609 | 667 | 510 | 266 | 184 | |
| Number with upper limb pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 215 | 66 | 80 | 62 | 40 | |
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||
| Upper limb pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.64 (1.49–1.80)*** | 1.82 (1.64–2.03)*** | 2.69 (2.31–3.13)*** | 3.18 (2.65–3.81)*** | < 0.001 |
| Upper limb pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.90 (1.44–2.51)*** | 3.05 (2.34–3.98)*** | 6.27 (4.65–8.47)*** | 6.86 (4.79–9.82)*** | < 0.001 |
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Upper limb pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.51 (1.37–1.67)*** | 1.68 (1.50–1.88)*** | 2.20 (1.87–2.57)*** | 2.44 (2.01–2.96)*** | < 0.001 |
| Upper limb pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without upper limb pain | 1 | 1.61 (1.21–2.14)** | 2.51 (1.91–3.31)*** | 4.31 (3.13–5.93)*** | 4.70 (3.22–6.86)*** | < 0.001 |
| Low back pain | ||||||
| Number with low back pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 5673 | 1252 | 869 | 426 | 267 | |
| Number with low back pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 257 | 66 | 88 | 69 | 54 | |
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||
| Low back pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.48 (1.37–1.60)*** | 1.38 (1.26–1.51)*** | 1.97 (1.72–2.25)*** | 2.09 (1.77–2.48)*** | < 0.001 |
| Low back pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.69 (1.28–2.22)*** | 2.78 (2.16–3.57)*** | 6.02 (4.52–8.02)*** | 7.98 (5.79–11.00)*** | < 0.001 |
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Low back pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.41 (1.30–1.53)*** | 1.39 (1.27–1.53)*** | 1.85 (1.61–2.13)*** | 1.85 (1.55–2.21)*** | < 0.001 |
| Low back pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without low back pain | 1 | 1.42 (1.08–1.88)* | 2.30 (1.77–2.99)*** | 4.11 (3.03–5.59)*** | 5.48 (3.90–7.70)*** | < 0.001 |
| Leg pain | ||||||
| Number with leg pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak | 2943 | 705 | 460 | 237 | 179 | |
| Number with leg pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic | 178 | 49 | 57 | 52 | 41 | |
| Model 1 | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||
| Leg pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.57 (1.43–1.73)*** | 1.52 (1.36–1.70)*** | 2.29 (1.96–2.68)*** | 3.14 (2.60–3.77)*** | < 0.001 |
| Leg pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.75 (1.27–2.40)*** | 2.83 (2.08–3.85)*** | 7.19 (5.17–9.99)*** | 10.14 (7.04–14.61)*** | < 0.001 |
| Model 2 | ||||||
| Leg pain since before the COVID-19 outbreak vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.45 (1.32–1.60)*** | 1.39 (1.24–1.57)*** | 1.86 (1.58–2.20)*** | 2.46 (2.102–2.99)*** | < 0.001 |
| Leg pain developed during the COVID-19 pandemic vs. without leg pain | 1 | 1.51 (1.09–2.10)*** | 2.20 (1.60–3.03)*** | 4.91 (3.45–6.98)*** | 6.83 (4.63–10.09)*** | < 0.001 |
Model 1: Adjusted for age and sex.
Model 2: Adjusted for age, sex, educational level, marital status, living alone, employment status, equivalized income, smoking status, alcohol consumption, physical activity, sleep duration, history of depression, and history of mental illnesses other than depression.
COVID-19 coronavirus disease 2019, OR odds ratio, CI confidence interval.
Loneliness was measured using the Japanese version of the University of California, Los Angeles Loneliness Scale (Version 3), Short Form 3-item assessment tool.
For loneliness, P values were calculated to compare participants without loneliness to those in the other categories by multinomial logistic regression.
For social isolation, P values were calculated to compare participants who did not feel increased social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic at all to those in the other categories by multinomial logistic regression.
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. n = 25,482.