Figure 16:

Simulation 4a: Inability to fully cancel aversive dopamine signals. (a) Empirical results adapted from Matsumoto & Hikosaka (2009a), Figure 3a, with permission from Springer Nature: Nature, copyright 2009, showing persistent pausing in dopamine cell firing even after extensive overtraining using a fully predicted aversive (airpuff) US (black arrow; 100% airpuff = 100% expectation of airpuff). (b) Corresponding simulation results with fully predicted aversive US showing residual positive LHbRMTg (dash-dot blue line) and negative VTAp activity (solid black). (c) Simulation results with fully predicted aversive US showing positive activity in the VTAn layer (dash-dot black line) that mirrors the negative VTAp activity (solid black).