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. 2021 Mar 25;49(9):2260–2272. doi: 10.1007/s10439-021-02757-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(a) Schematic of the testbed. The testbed includes four weights, allowing for impulsive loads to be applied in four different directions without modifying the experimental setup. We simulated the impact with a 1.2 kg weight, attached to the head gear with Kevlar cable. The Kevlar cable has slack to allow the mass to free fall on the linear guide for 60 cm and then pull the head. A safety stop was placed 10 cm after the end of the string to make sure the neck would not be overextended. Participants were strapped to the chair to minimize trunk movement. We asked participants to place their hands on their laps. (b) Participant in the experimental setup: headgear sized and sewn for each subject before the test to reduce slipping. We used a blindfold and noise isolation earbuds to prevent audio or visual cues other than the controlled warning sounds, prior to the impact. (c) EMG sensors were placed bilaterally over the posterior, semispinalis capitis (SEMI) and splenius capitis (SPL), and (d) anterior, sternocleidomastoid (SCM) and hyoid (HYO), muscles.