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. 2021 Mar 25;49(9):2260–2272. doi: 10.1007/s10439-021-02757-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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A sample of EMG amplitude for the SCM muscle and the force profile in that trial. The warning started playing at Time = 0 and impact happened at the time = Imp. (a) T_{(Pre-Imp-Onset)} represented the first time that the value of muscle activation reached 3%MVC. The dashed line indicates the absolute maximum value after the warning and before the impact for that test trial for the SCM muscle. (b) T_{(Pre-Imp-Max)} and EMG_{(Pre-Imp-Max)} defined when the EMG amplitude reached 70% of its maximum amplitude before the impact in that trial, (c) EMG_(Imp) represented EMG amplitude at the onset of the force, and (d) T_{(Post-Imp-Max)} and EMG_{(Post-Imp-Max)} showed the peak EMG activation after the impact. Points a and b, T_{(Pre-Imp-Onset)} and T_{(Pre-Imp-Max)}, times are reported based on the time of warning, t = 0. For point d, T_{(Post-Imp-Max)}, time was reported based on impact time t = Imp.