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. 2021 Mar 25;49(9):2260–2272. doi: 10.1007/s10439-021-02757-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Muscle and kinematic response to different types of warnings and the head impact pulling the head in sagittal extension. Warning started at t = 0 and lasted for 500 ms. Right (R-) and left (L-) semispinalis capitis (SEMI), splenius capitis (SPL), sternocleidomastoid (SCM), hyoid (HYO) muscle activations, head retraction (Ret), head rotation (θ) and the applied force are presented. The vertical scale bars are aligned to the sound onset and are in the scale of 10⁻¹ mV for muscle activations, mm for retraction, degrees for θ and N for force, respectively. The startle trials started with an early response compared to the Directional and Non-Directional. There is no muscle activation in the Unwarned trial before the impact.