Figure 1.

Stages and potential biological modulation of electrotherapies. A) Pulsed electric fields (including nanosecond‐pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs), reversible electroporation and IRE techniques) targeting GBM are in pre‐clinical validation with most studies in vitro and others in canine and rat models. These techniques typically involve mono‐ or bi‐phasic waveforms. B) TTFs is FDA approved to treat new and recurrent GBM in combination with current standard of care. It typically involves sinusoidal AC fields at 200 kHz. C) Potential mechanisms (from left to right): Neuron signaling contributes to GBM growth which feeds back to increase neuron excitation. PEF techniques can target ion channels, lipid bilayers, blood‐brain barrier opening, and other intracellular mechanisms (not shown). TTFs target mitotic cells through dipoles and DEP forces. Created with BioRender.com