TABLE 1.
Potential factors acting as promoters or inhibitors of vascular calcification in the context of CKD and gut dysbiosis
| CKD | Gut dysbiosis | |
|---|---|---|
| VC promoters | TMAO 101 | TMAO 144 |
| Inflammatory cytokines 45, 47 | Inflammatory cytokines 145 | |
| Oxidative stress 13 | Oxidative stress 146 | |
| Indoxyl‐sulphate 72, 77, 81, 83 | ||
| P‐cresyl‐sulphate 71, 81, 82 | ||
| BMPs 13 | ||
| Secondary CPPs 43 | ||
| Serum calcium 13, 19 | ||
| Serum phosphate 13, 19 | ||
| Serum Ca‐P product 13, 19 | ||
| Serum PTH 13, 41 | ||
| Serum FGF‐23 13 | ||
| Runx2 19 | ||
| VC inhibitors | Vitamin K 120 | Vitamin K 110, 121, 122 |
| SCFA 74 | SCFA 127 | |
| Klotho 13, 19 | ||
| Osteoprotegerin 13, 19 | ||
| Osteopontin 19 | ||
| MGP 43 | ||
| Pyrophosphate 19 | ||
| Fetuin‐A 13, 19 |
Abbreviations: BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; Ca, calcium; CKD, chronic kidney disease; CPP, calciprotein particles; FGF‐23, fibroblast growth factor‐23; MGP, matrix Gla‐protein; P, phosphorus; PTH, parathyroid hormone; SCFA, short‐chain fatty acids; TMAO, trimethylamine‐N‐oxide; VC, vascular calcification.