Table 2.
The effect of pregnancy on subjective well-being (SWB).
| Author (Year) and Design | Country/setting | Sample size | Mean age | Pregnancy state | Covariant | Dependent variable/SWB scale | Main result on SWB outcome | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | Taşdemir et al. (2010) and Cross sectional | Turkey/Primary health centers | 147 adolescents, 156 adults | 18.0 ± 0.1, 23.9 ± 0.3 | Pregnant adolescents (<20 years of age), pregnant adults (20–29 years of age) | Age, age at first marriage, multiparity, gestational period, consanguineous marriage, social insurance, smocking, education, and economic status | QoL/SF-36 | All QoL scores, except the bodily pain scale, were lower among the adolescents when compared to the adults. The QoL scores were highest in the second trimester for both groups. |
| (2) | Robinson et al. (2018) and Cross sectional | Norway/Maternity care units | 283 | 31.3 ± 4.2 | Gestation week 15, 30, and at 12 weeks and 1 year postpartum | Age, weight, height, BMI, education, pain intensity, disability, marriage, employment, and parity | HRQoL/SF-36, NHP questionnaire | Statistical significant differences in all domains of both HRQoL instruments in late pregnancy compared to the expected age-adjusted means of the reference populations except for Social isolation |
| (3) | Drescher et al. (2003) and Cross sectional | Texas/Prenatal care at the University Hospital | 42 | 16 | Pregnant teens | Age, education, live with family, parity, and population | QoL/MOS-SF 36v2 | Pregnant adolescent girls had slightly lower overall scores for all components of perceived QoL, except the vitality component. Scores were significantly lower than normative scores for only the physical functioning component. |
| (4) | Chang et al. (2014) and Cross sectional | Taiwan/ Medical center | 358 | N\A | ≤ 16 weeks of gestation | Employment, marital status, education, gravidity, parity, abortion, infertility, assisted reproduction, medical condition, expected pregnancy, and income (personal, household) | HRQoL (MCS)/SF-36 | The significant factors predicting the MCS scores during pregnancy included stage of pregnancy, parity, and medical condition. The factor predicting the mental health scores was a medical condition. |
| (5) | Tesfa et al. (2020) and Cross sectional | Ethiopia/General Hospital | 1,606 | ≤ 19 (7.0%), 20–29 (64.5%), 30–39 (25.3%), ≥40 (3.2%) | Pregnancies in the last 6 months, without complications that need admission to a hospital | Residence, age (maternal, partner), age during first pregnancy, education (maternal, partner), occupation (maternal, partner), marital status, and family size | Happiness/OHQ | The prevalence of happiness was 24%. Mothers who were exposed to unintended pregnancy reported intimate partner violence and being in the third trimester were the most predictor variables with a low level of happiness. |
| (6) | Türk et al. (2017) and Cross sectional | Erzurum/Maternity hospital | 272 | 17–25 (47.0%), 26–34 (39.7%), 35 and over (13.4%) | Pregnancies without exclusion | Age (maternal, partner), education (maternal, partner), marriage age, working status (maternal, partner), income status, living place, and family type | Happiness/OHQ-SF | Getting pregnant for the first time at the age of 26–35, having no stillbirths, and having a planned pregnancy were found to increase the level of happiness. |
| (7) | Ishfaq and and Mushtaq (2019) and Cross sectional | Pakistan/Gynecology Wards of hospitals, Private clinics | 204 | 27 ± 1.34 | Had at least one child and no physical or mental disabilities | Age | Happiness/The Subjective Happiness Scale-Urdu | Younger women have more subjective happiness than elder pregnant women. |
| (8) | Malhotra et al. (2015) and Cross sectional | India/Nursing homes, dispensaries, child care clinics | 100 | 28.73 | Pregnancies without exclusion | Age, family size, family type, working status, trimester, order of pregnancy, and past medical complications | Happiness/OHQ | Pregnancy emerged as a period that elicits an increase in the emotional states of women, with average happiness of 74.01% among Indian women |
| (9) | Ndombe et al. (2011) and Longitudinal | Norway/based on the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study | 67,355 | 30.0 ± 4.6 | Routine ultrasound examination around 18 weeks of gestation | N/A | LS/SWLS, five-item Relationship Satisfaction scale | LA increased with almost 0.1 standard deviations during pregnancy and infancy to reach its highest level at 6 months postpartum. SA changed more across time than satisfaction with the relationship and that satisfaction with life and with the relationship were more highly related as time passed |
| (10) | Branecka-Wozniak et al. (2020) and Cross sectional | Poland/Pregnancy pathology ward, Independent Public Clinical Hospital | 181 | 29.22 ± 3.88 | Different trimesters | Age, place of residence, education, employment status, trimester, first pregnancy, having children (number, age), previous delivery, presence of partner at delivery, Kegel's exercise | LS/ SWLS | The most numerous women were those with a high level of life satisfaction. |
| (11) | Aasheim et al. (2014) and Longitudinal | Norway/based on the National Norwegian Mother, Child Cohort Study | 18,565 | 25–31 (n = 13,107) 32–37, (n = 4,827) ≥ 38 (n = 631) | Routine ultrasound examination at ~17 weeks of gestation | Age, single status, native language, employment status, income, pregravid BMI, smoking, obstetric and infant outcomes (IVF, mode of delivery, preterm, neonatal transfer) | LS/SWLS | Satisfaction with life decreased from around age 28–40 and beyond. When comparing women of advanced and very advanced age with the reference group, satisfaction with life was slightly reduced in the two older age groups and most of all in women of very advanced age. |
| (12) | Farooq et al. (2018) and Cross sectional | Pakistan | 100 pregnant women, 100 nonpregnant women | N\A | Pregnancies without exclusion | N/A | PAandNA/Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale, Brief Cope Scale | Active avoidance coping is negatively correlated with positive affect and positively correlated with negative affect. Emotion-focused coping and problem focus coping do not predict positive affect and negative affect across pregnant women. |
| (13) | Lips (1985) and Longitudinal | Various places (Obstetricians, prenatal classes, parenting classes, church, etc.) | 105 pregnant women and 95 of their husbands, 151 nonpregnant women and 116 of their husbands | N\A | Pregnant and nonpregnant women | Age, mean duration of marriage, and education | PAandNA/55 item Symptom Checklist (XL), Beck Depression Inventory | A number of women experience an increase in negative emotionality over the course of pregnancy and into the early postpartum |
QoL, Quality of Life; HRQoL, Health-related Quality of Life; MCS, Mental component summary; LS, Life Satisfaction; PAandNA, Positive Affect and Negative Affect; SF-36, 36-Item Short Form Survey; NHP, Nottingham Health Profile; MOS, Medical Outcomes Study; OHQ, The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire; SWLS, Satisfaction with Life Scale.