Figure 1.

The mode of action of CGs in cancer proceeds through targeting Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase by maintaining the concentration of sodium-potassium gradient across the plasma membrane. CG binds to the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump, thus inhibiting it, resulting in intracellular retention of Na⁺ and increasing the concentration of Ca²⁺. Subsequently, lower expression of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase causes endoplasmic reticulum stress.