Table 1.

Representative pharmaceutic applications of 3D bioprinted tissue/organ equivalents.

Physiological Tissue/Organ Equivalents
		Printing Strategy	Achievement	Reference
Foreign barrier	Skin	Integrated extrusion-inkjet 3D bioprinting	Full-thickness skin model with improved physiological relevance; perfusable vascularized skin equivalent composed of epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.	[151]
	Airway	Indirect STL-based 3D bioprinting	Indirectly printed and reinforced with silicone rubber for creating a native mimetic tracheal framework; stratified mucosal layer formation by transferring stem cell sheets onto the luminal surface.	[147]
	Cornea	Extrusion-based 3D bioprinting	Arrangement of anatomically relevant corneal fibrillar structures controlled by printing nozzle size and shear stress.	[146]
Circulation	Vessel	Extrusion-based coaxial 3D bioprinting	Fabrication of freestanding, perfusable, and functional in vitro vascular model.	[93]
	Heart	Extrusion-based suspended 3D bioprinting	Thick, vascularized, and perfusable cardiac equivalent matching the immunological, cellular, biochemical, and anatomical characteristics.	[143]
	Renal	Extrusion-based tri-coaxial 3D bioprinting	Microfluidic tubes that recapitulates tubular/vascular renal parenchyma composed of renal tubular epithelial and endothelial cells.	[144]
Digestion	Intestine	STL-based 3D bioprinting	Engineering of intestinal structure with a crypt/villus architecture and tissue polarity by combining a photopolymerizable hydrogel with a high-resolution STL technique.	[149]
	Pancreas	Extrusion-based 3D bioprinting	Engineered pancreatic equivalent consisting of insulin-producing cells encapsulated in pancreatic tissue-specific bioink.	[148]
Diseased tissue/organ equivalents
		Printing strategy	Achievement	Reference
Diabetes		Integrated extrusion-inkjet 3D bioprinting	3D diseased skin tissue with pathophysiological features of type 2 diabetes in vitro; crosstalk between diabetic fibroblasts and epidermal keratinocytes to promote diseased epithelial morphogenesis.	[145]
Atherosclerosis		Extrusion-based in-bath coaxial 3D bioprinting	Direct fabrication of three-layered arterial-mimetic tubes with stable mechanical properties; recapitulation of various stimulation inducing endothelial dysfunction by stenotic and turbulent flows.	[140]
Cancer		Extrusion-based in-bath 3D bioprinting	3D tumor mimetic construction consisting of a metastatic cancer unit and a perfusable vascular system by a tissue-level fabrication printing platform; metastasis-associated changes by precisely controlling distal regions.	[116]