Table 1.

Effects of biophysical stimulation on osteoporosis development in human and in laboratory animals.

Types	Participants	Protocols	Response of Skeletal Tissue	References
Physical activity; regular exercise	Senior people; postmenopausal women; middle-aged males, etc.	Walking, stepping, lower extremity muscle strength; high-intensity resistance and impact training; team handball practices; dynamic resistance exercise	Improvement of mobility, gait and muscle strength; improvement of spinal, hip and distal radius bone mineral density and reduction of osteoporotic fracture risk	[32,33,34,35,36,37]
Electromechanical vibration	Postmenopausal women; artistic swimmers,	Whole-body vibration	Improvement of tibial, femoral neck, lumbar bone mineral density and stiffness	[38,39,40,41]
	Aged rats, diabetic rabbits	Low magnitude whole body vibration	Improvement of trabecular and cortical bone mineral density, microstructure, and strength	[42,43,44]
Mechanical loading	Healthy women; postmenopausal women	Voluntary upper extremity compressive loading; one-legged jumping	Improvement of ultradistal radius bone mineral density; bone material strength index	[45,46]
	Ovariectomized mice; young or aged mice	Knee loading; axial loading; spinal loading	Improvement of tibial bone mineral density, microstructure,	[47,48,49]
Piezoelectric stimulation	Ovariectomized mice or rats; rats with spinal cord injury	Pulsed electromagnetic fields, low-intensity ultrasound	Improvement of trabecular and cortical bone loss, strength,	[50,51,52]