Table 2.
Characteristics of the dietary VD and cognition study population, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011–2014 (N = 2524).
| CERAD Test | Animal Fluency Test | Digit Symbol Test | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number of Subjects (N) | Normal Cognitive Performance | Low Cognitive Performance | p-Value | Normal Cognitive Performance | Low Cognitive Performance | p-Value | Normal Cognitive Performance | Low Cognitive Performance | p-Value | |
| Number of subjects (%) | 1806(71.6) | 718(28.4) | 1792(71.0) | 731(29.0) | 1867(74.0) | 647(26.0) | ||||
| Age(%) 1 | 2524 | 0.028 | 0.415 | 0.993 | ||||||
| ≥60 years | 954(52.8) | 414(57.7) | 962(53.7) | 406(55.5) | 1012(54.2) | 356(54.2) | ||||
| ≥70 years | 852(47.2) | 304(42.3) | 830(46.3) | 326(44.5) | 855(45.8) | 301(45.8) | ||||
| Gender(%) 1 | 2524 | <0.01 | 0.664 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Male | 785(43.5) | 432(60.2) | 869(48.5) | 348(47.5) | 847(45.4) | 370(56.3) | ||||
| Female | 1021(56.5) | 286(39.8) | 923(51.5) | 384(52.5) | 1020(54.6) | 287(43.7) | ||||
| Race(%) 1 | 2524 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Mexican American | 129(7.1) | 82(11.4) | 149(8.3) | 62(8.5) | 119(6.4) | 92(14.0) | ||||
| Other Hispanic | 141(7.8) | 103(14.3) | 151(8.4) | 93(12.7) | 120(6.4) | 124(18.9) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic White | 971(53.8) | 298(41.5) | 1033(57.6) | 236(32.2) | 1094(58.6) | 175(26.6) | ||||
| Non-Hispanic Black | 401(22.3) | 192(26.7) | 334(18.6) | 260(35.5) | 350(18.7) | 244(37.1) | ||||
| Other races | 163(9.0) | 43(6.0) | 125(7.0) | 81(11.1) | 184(9.9) | 22(3.3) | ||||
| Educational level (%) 1 | 2522 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Below high school | 382(19.0) | 304(42.2) | 369(19.3) | 317(38.6) | 276(13.7) | 410(56.9) | ||||
| High school | 475(23.6) | 175(24.3) | 435(22.7) | 215(26.2) | 489(24.3) | 161(22.3) | ||||
| Above high school | 1158(57.5) | 241(33.5) | 1110(58.0) | 289(35.2) | 1249(62.0) | 150(20.8) | ||||
| Marital status (%) 1 | 2521 | 0.883 | 0.027 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Married/living with partner | 1060(58.8) | 419(58.4) | 1075(60.1) | 404(55.3) | 1150(61.7) | 329(50.2) | ||||
| Widowers/divorced/separated/never married | 744(41.2) | 298(42.6) | 715(39.9) | 317(44.7) | 715(38.3) | 327(49.8) | ||||
| Poverty-income ratio (%) 1 | 2333 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| ≤1.00 | 228(13.6) | 145(22.0) | 219(13.1) | 154(23.2) | 192(11.1) | 181(30.4) | ||||
| ≥1.00 | 1446(86.4) | 514(78.0) | 1450(86.9) | 510(76.8) | 1545(88.9) | 415(69.6) | ||||
| Body mass index (%) 1 | 2492 | 0.163 | 0.662 | 0.886 | ||||||
| <25 kg/m2 | 466(26.1) | 195(27.6) | 465(26.6) | 196(27.5) | 491(26.5) | 170(26.7) | ||||
| <30 kg/m2 | 607(34.0) | 259(36.6) | 627(35.3) | 239(33.5) | 650(35.0) | 216(34.0) | ||||
| ≥30 kg/m2 | 712(39.9) | 253(35.8) | 686(38.6) | 279(39.1) | 715(38.5) | 250(39.3) | ||||
| Physical activity level(%) 1 | 2524 | <0.01 | <0.01 | <0.01 | ||||||
| Moderate and high | 803(44.5) | 264(36.8) | 825(46.0) | 242(33.1) | 875(46.9) | 192(29.2) | ||||
| Low | 1003(55.5) | 454(63.2) | 968(54.0) | 490(66.9) | 992(53.1) | 465(70.8) | ||||
| Season of exam (%) 1 | 2524 | 0.545 | 0.832 | 0.023 | ||||||
| November-April | 796(44.1) | 326(45.4) | 799(44.6) | 323(44.1) | 805(43.1) | 317(48.2) | ||||
| May-October | 1010(55.9) | 392(54.6) | 993(55.4) | 409(55.9) | 1128(56.0) | 340(51.8) | ||||
| Smoking status (%) 1 | 2522 | 907(50.3) | 368(51.3) | 0.658 | 915(51.1) | 360(49.2) | 0.377 | 1329(71.5) | 401(62.0) | 0.796 |
| Hypertension (%) 1 | 2522 | 1248(69.1) | 514(71.7) | 0.209 | 1212(67.7) | 550(75.1) | <0.01 | 1267(67.9) | 495(75.3) | <0.01 |
| Diabetes (%) 1 | 2524 | 467(25.9) | 232(32.3) | 0.001 | 440(24.6) | 259(35.4) | <0.01 | 443(23.7) | 256(39.0) | <0.01 |
| Stroke (%) 1 | 2519 | 107(5.9) | 62(8.6) | 0.015 | 100(5.6) | 69(9.5) | <0.01 | 94(5.0) | 75(11.4) | <0.01 |
| Had at least 12 alcohol drinks/year (%) 1 | 2506 | 1244(69.1) | 486(68.7) | 0.842 | 1271(71.3) | 459(63.4) | <0.01 | 1329(71.5) | 401(62.0) | <0.01 |
| Total energy intake (kcal/day) 2 | 2524 | 1845.71(672.87) | 1761.34(685.91) | 0.001 | 1885.32(676.43) | 1666.00(655.11) | <0.01 | 1875.86(651.83) | 1667.83(724.50) | <0.01 |
| Daily dietary VD intake (μg/d) 2 | 2524 | 25.14(47.43) | 19.04(58.55) | <0.01 | 24.95(49.71) | 19.60(53.54) | <0.01 | 26.49(57.00) | 14.60(24.79) | <0.01 |
Data is number of subjects (percentage) or medians (interquartile ranges); 1 Chi-square was used to compare the percentage between participants with and without low cognitive performance; 2 Mann–Whitney U test was applied to compare the median values between participants with and without low cognitive performance.