Table 1.
Kinetic parameters, rate constant (k), half-time (t½) and activation energy (Ea) of anthocyanin degradation under various heating conditions, in a selection of fruit, vegetable, flower and colorant products.
| Source | pH | Heating T (°C) |
Monitoring Time | Rate Constant (k) |
t½ (h) |
Ea (kJ/mol) |
Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fruits | |||||||
| Açaí (Euterpe precatoria Mart.) pulp | nr | 60 | 90 min | 0.0005 min−1 | 23 | 42.8 | [32] |
| 70 | 0.0006 min−1 | 19 | |||||
| 80 | 0.0007 min−1 | 16 | |||||
| 90 | 0.002 min−1 | 7 | |||||
| Acerola (Malpighia emarginata D.C.) pulp juice | nr | 60 | 1 h, 30 min | Graphical representation k = f(1/T) | 4 | 68.042 | [28] |
| 70 | 2 | ||||||
| 80 | 1 | ||||||
| 90 | 1/2 | ||||||
| Blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum L.) ethanol extract from thermally treated pulps | 3.07 | 75 | 25 h | 0.0065 h−1 | 21.9 | 94 | [27] |
| 80 | 0.0131 h−1 | 7.2 | |||||
| 90 | 0.0352 h−1 | 1.8 | |||||
| Blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) ethanol extract from thermally treated pulps | 3.46 | 70 | 25 h | 0.0320 h−1 | 12.7 | 92 | [27] |
| 80 | 0.0536 h−1 | 7.3 | |||||
| 90 | 0.1167 h−1 | 1.4 | |||||
| Blueberries/Rabbiteye (Vaccinium achei) juice | nr | 50 | 25 h | 0.273 × 10−3 min−1 | 42.30 | 80.42 | [33] |
| 60 | 0.457 × 10−3 min−1 | 25.30 | |||||
| 70 | 8 h | 1.350 × 10−3 min−1 | 8.60 | ||||
| 80 | 2.254 × 10−3 min−1 | 5.11 | |||||
| Blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) methanol extract | 3 | 50 | 10 h | 0.009 h−1 | 74.47 | nd | [34] |
| 60 | 0.026 h−1 | 26.51 | |||||
| 70 | 0.047 h−1 | 14.73 | |||||
| 80 | 0.146 h−1 | 4.73 | |||||
| 6 | 50 | 10 h | 0.044 h−1 | 15.64 | nd | ||
| 60 | 0.111 h−1 | 6.21 | |||||
| 70 | 0.249 h−1 | 2.77 | |||||
| 80 | 0.452 h−1 | 1.53 | |||||
| Blackberries (Rubus spp.) acidified aqueous extracts | 2 | 50 | nr | 1.8 × 10−3 min−1 | 6.4 | 15.0 | [35] |
| 75 | 2.8 × 10−3 min−1 | 4.1 | |||||
| 100 | 3.8 × 10−3 min−1 | 3.0 | |||||
| Chokeberries (Aronia spp.) acidified aqueous extracts | 2 | 50 | nr | 2.8 × 10−3 min−1 | 4.1 | 5.7 | |
| 75 | 3.5 × 10−3 min−1 | 3.3 | |||||
| 100 | 3.7 × 10−3 min−1 | 3.1 | |||||
| Elderberries (Sambucus spp.) acidified aqueous extracts | 2 | 50 | nr | 2.3 × 10−3 min−1 | 5.0 | 10.1 | |
| 75 | 3.3 × 10−3 min−1 | 3.5 | |||||
| 100 | 3.8 × 10−3 min−1 | 3.0 | |||||
| Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) pigment isolates from concentrates | 3.5 | 95 | 4 h | nr | 1.96 | nd | [11] |
| Grape (Vitis vinifera cv. of Karasakiz) juice | 3.34 | 70 | 90 min | 1.20 × 10−3 min−1 | 10.03 | 64.89 | [29] |
| 80 | 60 min | 2.40 × 10−3 min−1 | 5.02 | ||||
| 90 | 60 min | 4.20 × 10−3 min−1 | 2.79 | ||||
| Prunus nepalensis L. (Sohiong), freeze dried extracts, in citrate phosphate buffer | 3.5 | 50 | 7 h | 0.018 days−1 (CE) 0.017 days−1 (EAE) |
38.5 (CE) 40.7 (EAE) |
nd | [36] |
| 80 | 0.044 days−1 (CE) 0.041 days−1 (EAE) |
15.75 (CE) 16.9 (EAE) |
|||||
| Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) pigment isolates from concentrates | 3.5 | 95 | 4 h | nr | 1.95 | nd | [11] |
| Vegetables | |||||||
| Black carrot (Daucus carota L. ssp. sativus var. atrorubens Alef.) pigment isolate from concentrate | 3.5 | 95 | 4 h | nr | 2.81 | nd | [11] |
| Black rice (Oryza sativa L.) bran colorant powder dissolved in acetate buffer | 3 | 60 | 2 h | 0.71 × 10−3 min−1 | 16.3 | 45.05 | [37] |
| 80 | 1.26 × 10−3 min−1 | 9.17 | |||||
| 100 | 4.12 × 10−3 min−1 | 2.8 | |||||
| 4 | 60 | 2.16 × 10−3 min−1 | 5.35 | 21.09 | |||
| 80 | 3.67 × 10−3 min−1 | 3.15 | |||||
| 100 | 4.87 × 10−3 min−1 | 2.37 | |||||
| 5 | 60 | 5.34 × 10−3 min−1 | 2.16 | 17.54 | |||
| 80 | 8.59 × 10−3 min−1 | 1.34 | |||||
| 100 | 12.3 × 10−3 min−1 | 0.94 | |||||
| Purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), in citric buffer | 3 | 70 | 6 h | 236 × 10−4 h−1 | 29.4 | 16.46 | [38] |
| 80 | 262 × 10−4 h−1 | 26.5 | |||||
| 90 | 320 × 10−4 h−1 | 21.7 | |||||
| Purple sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) solution 5 cvs.: Mokpo No. 62, Borami, Jami, Sinjami and Ayamurasaki |
3 | 60 | - | 0.04035, 0.03453, 0.03613, 0.03774 and 0.03800 h−1 | 17.2, 20.1, 19.2, 18.4 and 3.2 day | 54.67, 60.93, 71.73, 59.35 and 62.28 | [39] |
| 80 | 0.23364, 0.22338, 0.22222, 0.21935 and 0.21627 h−1 | 3.0, 3.1, 3.1, 3.2 and 3.2 day | |||||
| Red cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata f. rubra) ethanol extract | 3.5 | 80 | 7 h | 1.7 × 10−3 min−1 | 6.7 | nd | [40] |
| Red cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata f. rubra) aqueous extract | nr | 60 | 30 h | 0.0273 h−1 | 25.3 | nd | [41] |
| 70 | 0.0394 h−1 | 17.6 | |||||
| 80 | 0.0694 h−1 | 10.0 | |||||
| Flowers | |||||||
| Hibiscus calyces (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) 4 types of ethanol/methanol extracts acidified with HCl, formic acid, citric acid or acetic acid |
3 | 70 | 6 h | 0.0007, 0.0009, 0.0011 and 0.0009 min−1 | 22.0, 26.0, 18.0 and 19.0 | nd | [42] |
| 75 | 0.0005, 0.0006, 0.0011 and 0.0007 min−1 | 18.0, 17.0, 12.0 and 17.0 | |||||
| 80 | 0.0004, 0.0006, 0.0013 and 0.0007 min−1 | 19.0, 17.0, 10.0 and 13.0 | |||||
| 85 | 0.0004, 0.0007, 0.0012 and 0.0005 min−1 | 18.0, 19.0, 16.0 and 16.0 | |||||
| Purified anthocyanins | |||||||
| Colorant—anthocyanins liquid (ColorFruit® Violet 100 WS) | 7 | 80 | 90 min | 0.0114 min−1 (without stabilizer) 0.0027 min−1 (with mannoproteins) |
50.4 min (without stabilizer) 272.4 min (with mannoproteins) |
nd | [43] |
| 126 | 0.0271 min−1 (without stabilizer) 0.0051 min−1 (with mannoproteins) |
25.8 min (without stabilizer) 143.4 (with mannoproteins) |
|||||
| Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside | 3 | 80 | 2 h | 0.0018 min−1 | 386.3 min | nd | [44] |
| 6 | 80 | 0.0063 min−1 | 109.2 min | ||||
Note: nr = not reported; nd = not determined; CE conventional extraction; EAE enzyme-aided extraction.