Table 2.
Responses of insects to different toxicants. The first column indicates the kind of chemical compound described; the second indicates the compound. The third lists the affected species. The fourth column indicates the order and family of the insect. The fifth lists the effects observed in response to the toxicant. The sixth shows the epigenetic molecular mechanisms involved, where “DNA M.” refers to C5-cytosine methylation, “H. M.” stands for histone modifications, and “RNA-b M.” is RNA-based mechanisms [54]. The seventh column has the corresponding references cited.
| Chemical Group/ Functional Category |
Elements or Compounds | Affected Species | Order: Family | Effects | EMMs Studied | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Heavy Metals | Cu2+ | Aedes aegypti; Anopheles arabiensis | Diptera: Culicidae | Cell metabolisms, egg hatching, apoptosis; decrease in RNA methylation; DNAm methylation | DNA M., RNA-b M | Rayms-Keller et al., 2000 [89]; Raes et al., 2000 [90]; Jeanrenaud, Brooke & Oliver, 2020 [84] |
| Zn | Rhithrogena robusta | Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae | Reduced individual growth rate | NO | Carlisle & Clements, 2003 [91] | |
| Pb | Lymantria dispar; Anopheles arabiensis | Lepidoptera: Erebidae; Diptera: Culicidae | Decrease in growth and reduction in hatching success; increased in RNA methylation patterns; DNA methylation | DNA M., RNA-b M. | Gintenreiter, Ortel & Nopp, 1993 [87]; Jeanrenaud, Brooke & Oliver, 2020 [84] | |
| Cd | Orchesella cincta; Anopheles arabiensis | Collembola: Entomobryidae; Diptera: Culicidae | Transcriptome stress response; increase in 5-hmC methylation | DNA M. | Roelofs et al., 2009 [86]; Jeanrenaud, Brooke & Oliver, 2020 [84] | |
| Heavy Metals | Al | Drosophila melanogaster | Diptera: Drosophilidae | Reduction in median life span; climbing ability and cognitive capacity | NO | Wu et al., 2012 [92] |
| Chlorinated hydrocarbons | DDT | Ephemerella subvaria, Ephemerella auravillii | Ephemeroptera: Ephemerellidae | Impaired subimago emergence | NO | Hitchcock, 1965 [93] |
| Aldrin | Cheumatopsyche analis | Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae | Hormetic response | NO | Moye & Luckmann, 1964 [94] | |
| Chlordane | Periplaneta americana | Blattodea: Blattidae | Increase in total hemocyte count; excessive vacuolization of epithelial cells in the midgut lumen | NO | Gupta & Sutherland, 1968 [95] | |
| Endrin | Periplaneta americana | Blattodea: Blattidae | Dose-dependent blocking of GABA receptors | NO | Wafford et al., 1989 [96] | |
| Chlorinated hydrocarbons | Heptachlor | Periplaneta americana | Blattodea: Blattidae | Dose-dependent blocking of GABA receptors | NO | Lummis et al., 1990 [97] |
| Lindane | Periplaneta americana; Chironomus ripariu | Blattodea: Blattidae; Diptera: Chironimidae | Dose-dependent blocking of GABA receptors; reduction in imago emergence | NO | Wafford et al., 1989 [96]; Maund et al., 1992 [98] | |
| Organophosphates | Parathion | Musca domestica | Diptera: Muscidae | Toxin degradation | NO | Matsumura & Hogendijk, 1964 [99] |
| Malathion | Periplaneta americana; Musca domestica | Blattodea: Blattidae; Diptera: Muscidae | Toxin metabolization | NO | Krueger & O’Brien, 1959 [100] | |
| Glyphosate | Deleatidium spp. | Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae | Reduction in imago emergence | NO | Magbanua et al., 2016 [101] | |
| Organophosphates | Diazinon | Musca domestica | Diptera: Muscidae | Toxin degradation | NO | Matsumura & Hogendijk, 1964 [99] |
| Tetrachlorvinphos | Alphitobius diaperinus | Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae | Resistance to pesticide | NO | Hamm et al., 2006 [102] | |
| Azamethiphos | Musca domestica | Diptera: Muscidae | Resistance to pesticide | NO | Kristensen et al., 2000 [103] | |
| Phosmet | Megachile rotundata | Hymenoptera: Megachilidae | Reduced nesting and progeny production | NO | Alston et al., 2007 [104] | |
| Diclorvos | Alphitobius diaperinus | Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae | Resistance to pesticide | NO | Chernaki-Leffer et al., 2011 [105] | |
| Terbufos | Alphitobius diaperinus | Diptera: Sarcophagidae | Avoidance of pesticide | NO | Jales et al., 2020 [106] | |
| Carbamates | Sevin | Musca domestica | Diptera: Muscidae | Metabolization of pesticide | NO | Eldefrawi & Hoskims, 1964 [107] |
| Aldicarb | Pseudatomoscelis seriatus; Musca domestica | Hemiptera: Miridae; Diptera: Muscidae | Death | NO | Davis & Cowan, 1972 [108]; Spurr & Sousa, 1974 [109] | |
| Carbofuran | Diabrotica virgifera | Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae | Increase in oviposition; increase in longevity | NO | Ball & Su, 1979 [110] | |
| Carbaryl | Diabrotica virgifera | Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae | Increase in oviposition | NO | Ball & Su, 1979 [110] | |
| Pyrethroids | Allethrin | Periplaneta americana | Blattodea: Blattidae | Temperature dependent disruption of the nervous system | NO | Gammon, 1978 [111] |
| Bifenthrin | Apis mellifera ligustica | Hymenoptera: Apidae | Reduction in oviposition; reduction in cap rate; reduction in emergence rate; success rate of development | NO | Dai et al., 2010 [112] | |
| β Cyfluthrin |
Drosophila melanogaster (Sepia mutant) |
Diptera: Drosophilidae | Reduction imago emergence; prolongation of total developmental period | NO | Nadda, Saxena & Srivastava, 2005 [113] | |
| Cypermethrin | Alphitobius diaperinus | Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae | Resistance to pesticide | NO | Chernaki-Leffer et al., 2011 [105] | |
| Cyphenothrin | Ranatra filiformis | Hemiptera: Nepidae | Hyperactivity, death | NO | Saha & Kaviraj, 2007 [114] | |
| Pyrethroids | Deltamethrin | Apis mellifera ligustica | Hymenoptera: Apidae | Reduction in oviposition; lower hatch rate; reduction in cap rate; success rate of development | NO | Dai et al., 2010 [112] |
| Permethrin | Acheta domesticus | Orthoptera: Gryllidae | Death | NO | Schleier & Peterson, 2010 [115] | |
| Resmethrin | Danaus plexippus | Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae | Reduced adult size, death | NO | Oberhauser et al., 2009 [116] | |
| Transfluthrin | Culex tarsalis | Diptera: Culicidae | Avoidance of pesticide | NO | Britch et al., 2020 [117] | |
| Neonicotinoids (neuroinsecticides) | Thiamethoxam | Musca domestica | Diptera: Muscidae | Acetylcholine receptors hyperexcitation; ATPase activity | NO | Abdel-Haleem et al., 2018 [118] |
| Neonicotinoids (neuroinsecticides) | Imidacloprid | Apis mellifera | Hymenoptera: Apidae | Acetylcholine receptors hyperexcitation; Malpighian tubule deformation; changes in global DNA methylation | DNA M. | Paleolog et al., 2020 [119]; Hu et al., 2018 [120]; Brevik et al., 2020 [81] |
| Acetamiprid | Apis mellifera | Hymenoptera: Apidae | Reduction in sucrose sensitivity; increased locomotive activity | NO | El-hassani et al., 2007 [121] | |
| Clothianidin | Chironomus dilutus | Diptera: Chironomidae | Reduction of emergence | NO | Maloney et al., 2018 [122] | |
| Nitenpyram | Bemisia tabaci B biotype | Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae | Resistance to pesticide | NO | Liang et al., 2012 [123] | |
| Thiacloprid | Culex pipiens | Diptera: Culicidae | Preimaginal development duration | NO | Beketov & Liess, 2008 [124] | |
| Dinotefuran | Chironominae spp. | Diptera: Chironomidae | Population hormetic response | NO | Kobashi et al., 2017 [125] | |
| Endocrine disruptors (ED) | Bisphenol A | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | Increase in mRNA for ecdysone receptor and increase in the expression of HSP70 | RNA-b M. | Planelló, Martínez-Guitarte & Morcillo, 2008 [85] |
| Tributyltin | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | DNA breakage | NO | Martínez-Paz et al., 2013 [126] | |
| Pentachlorophenol | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | Upregulation of Hsp70 gene transcription; downregulation of the Hsp27 transcription | NO | Morales et al., 2014 [127] | |
| Nonylphenol | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | DNA breakage | NO | Martínez-Paz et al., 2013 [126] | |
| Triclosan | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | DNA breakage | NO | Martínez-Paz et al., 2013 [126] | |
| Benzyl butyl phthalate | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | Overexpression of the EcR gene | NO | Planelló et al., 2011 [128] | |
| Endocrine disruptors (ED) | DEHP/Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate | Chironomus riparius | Diptera: Chironomidae | Mouthparts deformities | NO | Park & Kwak, 2008 [129] |
| Ethinylestradiol | Drosophila melanogaster | Diptera: Drosophilidae | Reduction in lifespan, decrease in fertility | NO | Bovier et al., 2018 [130] | |
| Genistein/5,7-dihydroxy-3-(4-hydro- xyphenyl)chromen-4-one) | Aedes albopictus; Anopheles arabiensis | Diptera: Culicidae | DNA methylation; reduction in egg hatching | DNA M. | Oppold et al., 2015 [11]; Jeanrenaud, Brooke & Oliver, 2020 [84] | |
| Vinclozolin (Fungicide) | Aedes albopictus; Anopheles arabiensis | Diptera: Culicidae | DNA methylation; reduction in egg hatching | DNA M. | Oppold et al., 2015 [11]; Jeanrenaud, Brooke & Oliver, 2020 [84] | |
| DMSO/dimethyl sulphoxide | Antheraea assamensis | Lepidoptera: Saturniidae | Alterations in hormonal balance; alterations in silk production | NO | Unni et al., 2009 [131] | |
| Micro plastics | Polystyrene | Culex pipiens | Diptera: Culicidae | Accumulation in Malpighian tubules | NO | Al-Jaibachi, Cuthbert & Callaghan, 2018 [132] |
| Polypropylene | Lestes viridis | Odonata: Lestidae | Accumulation in body | NO | Akindele, Ehlers & Koop, 2020 [133] |
|
| Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) |
Siphlonurus sp. | Ephemeroptera: Siphlonuridae | Accumulation in body | NO | Akindele, Ehlers & Koop, 2020 [133] |