Table 1.

Examples of food protein-derived bioactive peptides and their mechanisms of action. ABCB-1: ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 1; ACE: angiotensin I-converting enzyme; Ang II: angiotensin II; AT1R: angiotensin II type-1 receptor; CDH-1: cadherin 1; eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; CCK1: cholecystokinin-1; COX: cyclooxygenase; IRF-8: interferon regulatory factor 8; PGI2–IP.: prostacyclin receptor; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule-1; SOD: superoxide dismutase; SHR: spontaneously hypertensive rat.

Peptide	Source	Animal	Activity	Reference
Peptides with antihypertensive effects: RRWQWR, IJWKL and RPYL	Milk, Derived from lactoferrin	SHRs	Reduces Ang II-induced vasoconstriction in isolated rabbit carotid arterial segments.	[11]
IRW	Derived from egg ovotransferrin	SHRs	Dose-dependently attenuates BP by ~10 mmHg and ~40 mmHg in the low- and high-dose groups, respectively, compared with the results obtained with untreated SHRs. Increases the expression of ACE-2, ATP-binding cassette subfamily B member 1, interferon-regulatory factor and cadherin 1 while significantly decreasing the expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in mesenteric arteries.	[12,13]
EWH (egg white protein hydrolysate)	Egg white protein	SHRs	Improves vascular relaxation and modifies aortic Ang II receptor expression.	[14]
YRGGLEPINF ESIINF	Egg white protein	SHRs	Its vascular-relaxing mechanism is independent of ACE inhibition.	[15]
TRB (Thermolysin- digested rice bran) LRA, YY	Thermolysin-digested rice bran	SHRs	The long-term administration of TRB (50 mg kg−1 d−1) lowers systolic blood pressure compared with that of the control group. TRB reduces ACE activity in the lung in a dose-dependent manner but does not affect ACE activities in the aorta, kidney, and heart tissues. LRA (0.25 mg kg − 1) and YY (0.5 mg kg − 1) lowers blood pressure 4 h after oral administration.	[16]
IQP, VEP	Spirulina platensis hydrolysates	SHRs	Inhibits ACE, Ang II and AT1R. Upregulates ACE2, Ang (1–7), Mas and AT2.	[17]
Salmon gelatine hydrolysate	Salmon	SHRs	ACE and DPP-IV inhibitory activities in vitro.	[18]
SLR, YY, ER, and FR	Papain-digested bovine serum albumin	SHRs	ACE inhibitory activity in vitro and in vivo.	[19]
Hydrolysate fraction	Palm kernel	SHRs	Antihypertensive effects.	[20]
Milk peptides	Milk protein hydrolysate	SHRs	Attenuate the development of hypertension: systolic blood pressure is increased 33 ± 3 mmHg in the control group compared to 18 ± 5 mmHg in the treated group. Improve aorta and mesenteric acetylcholine relaxation. Increase eNOS expression in the aorta. Decrease left ventricular hypertrophy and interstitial fibrosis.	[21]
RVPSL	Egg	SHRs	Dose-dependently decreases systolic blood pressure starting one week after the administration of a maximum dose of 50 mg/kg. Increases the mRNA expression of renin, ACE, and AT1 receptor in the kidney. Decreases the serum Ang II, renin, and aldosterone levels.	[22]
Rapakinin (RIY)	Rapeseed	SHRs	Induces dilatation of mesenteric artery mediated mainly by the PGI2–IP receptor and then CCK–CCK1 receptor-dependent vasorelaxation.	[23]
Other effects VPP	Milk, casein-derived	CSJEL/61 Mice	Attenuates high-fat diet-induced adipose tissue inflammation.	[24]
Hemp seed Protein hydrolysate	Hemp seed	SHRs	Decreases SOD and catalase expression and the total peroxides levels.	[25]
Milk peptides	Fermented milk with Lactococcus lactis NRRL B-50571	SHRs	Enhance nitric oxide production and antioxidant activity.	[26]
Lunasin	Soy	Apolipoprotein E–deficient (ApoE-/-) mice	Decreases plaque formation in an experimental ApoE2/2 atherosclerotic model.	[27]