Table 2.
Climate chamber cold air exposure studies.
| Authors/ Pubmed ID |
Study Protocol: Environmental Temperature (Time of Exposure)/Subject Temperature in Cold | Number of Participants (Gender)/Mean Age of Participants (Mean ± SD)/Clothes | Timing of Cognitive Test Administration/ Duration of Test Battery | Test Battery: Type of Cognitive Test (Cognitive Domain) | Changes in Cognitive Performance (Based on Significant Results, p < 0.05) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Yang et al. 2021 [19] 33352146 |
ACE: −10 °C (30 min) vs. 23 °C (30 min)/NA | 6 (M)/23.7 ± 1.1 y/ Military uniform (long-sleeved coats, trousers, cotton coats, cotton pants, boots, and hat) |
In warm room after environmental exposure/NA | WHO-NCTB: CRT (attention/response speed), digit span (auditory memory), digit symbol (perceptual motor speed), Santa Ana dexterity (manual dexterity), Benton visual retention (visual perception/memory), pursuit aiming (motor steadiness), Stroop (attention and EF) | Decreased perceptual motor speed, motor steadiness and attention/EF (Stroop test) |
| Racinais et al. 2017 [21] 27080805 |
ACE: 8 °C (30 min) vs. 24 °C (30 min)/Tsk 27.1 °C (~−4.1/skiers) and 24.3 °C (~−6/HC) | 36 (M)-22 elite skiers/26 ± 4 y, 14 HC/33 ± 6 y/ Shorts and t-shirts |
After 0, 10 or 20 min based on randomization both at 8 and 24 °C/10 min | CANTAB: complex and simple planning task: OTS 6 and 4 (EF) | Reduced accuracy in cold only in HC; elite skiers took more time to answer during the test (complex task OTS-6) in cold |
| Watkins et al. 2014 [23] 25295479 |
ACE: −5 °C (45 min plus 45 min after a 15 min break) vs. 18 °C (45 min plus 45 min) vs. 30 °C (45 min plus 45 min)/Tsk 24.5 ± 2.6 °C from ~29 °C and Tre 36.9 ± 0.4 °C from ~37 °C | 13 (M)/19.6 ± 3 y/ t-shirts, shorts, socks, shoes (same in all session) |
Assessed 4 times (0 min; after the first 45 min; just after the break; after additional 45 min)/NA | Numerical vigilance task (sustained attention), dual Task performance (divided attention) | Sustained attention decreased during cold exposure |
| Muller et al. 2012 [20] 22506538 |
ACE: resting at 10 °C (2 h); passive rewarming to 25 °C (2 h) on 3 consecutive days/Tre (~0.2 °C increase) and Tsk (~−9 °C decrease) | 10 (M)/23 ± 1 y/ Shorts, socks, gloves (same over the three days). Gloves removed during CT |
At baseline (25 °C), after 60 min at 10 °C, after 60 and 300 min after 10 °C exposure/~20 min | IntegNeuroTM: CRT (attention/response speed), digit span forward and backward (auditory STM and WM; memory), verbal Interference part I and II, executive maze task (EF) | Both ACE and repeated cold exposure induced decreased CP except EF Maze task and Verbal Interference part II (incongruent task) |
| Spitznagel et al. 2009 [24] 19653572 |
ACE: 10 °C (2 h) acute cold exposure at 10 °C; protocol also repeated over 3 consecutive days/Tre and Tsk not reported | 6 (M)/23.3 ± 1.5 y/ Shorts, gloves, and socks |
13 assessments over the 3 days (at around 4 h- intervals) during and after cold exposure/45 min | IntegNeuro: digit span total (auditory attention and WM), CRT (sustained attention); verbal interference-word and color-word and mazes (attention and EF) | ACE and repeated cold exposure induced CP impairment on attention, WM, and EF |
| Adam et al. 2008 [10] 18166204 |
ACE: 2 °C (3 h) vs. 20 °C (3 h) after a pre-exposure to 45 °C (3 h) + room temperature resting period (2 h)/Tre (~0.5 °C increase) and Tsk (~−6–7 °C decrease) | 8 (6 M)/24 ± 6 y/ t-shirts, shorts, socks, shoes, cotton gloves and ear band |
After ~35 min of cold exposure/20 min | Visual vigilance (attention) | No effect on attention |
| Mäkinen et al. 2006 [22] 16309719 |
ACE: 25 °C (90 min) followed by 10 °C (120 min); protocol repeated over 10 consecutive days/Tre baseline 37 °C (Δ 0.3−1 °C) and Tsk baseline 26 °C (Δ 6–7 °C) | 10 (M)/22.5 ± 1.6 y/ Lightly clad in shorts, socks, and shoes |
After 70 min of warm exposure and after 100 min of cold exposure/20 min | ANAM-ICE: digit symbol (processing speed/sustained attention), symbol digit modalities test (sustained attention and WM); logical reasoning; matching-to-sample (attention and WM); continuous performance (sustained visual attention); SRT (attention); Sternberg memory Search (visual STM) | No difference after the first day exposure to cold. Repeated cold exposure caused longer response time and worsening of accuracy and efficiency on sustained attention and WM (symbol digit modalities test); worse accuracy in STM but faster response time in reasoning and sustained attention (continuous performance) |
| Enander, 1987 [15] 3428250 |
EXP 1: 2 exp sessions at 5.5 ± 0.5 °C (90 min) vs. 21 ± 0.5 °C (90 min) / Tsk (~−1–3 °C), Tre (~−0.3 °C) EXP 2: 4 ± 1 °C (60 min) vs. 20 ± 0.5 °C (60 min)/Tsk (~−1–3 °C) and Tre (~+0.5 °C) |
EXP1:12 (M) office workers/31.4 y (range: 22–45 years)/ Underpants, T-shirt, pants, socks, clogs, and jacket EXP2:12 (F)/ 34.8 y (range: 27–42 years)/ Undergarments, T-shirt, trousers and jacket, socks, and clogs |
EXP1: 10 min/55 min EXP2: 35 min/55 min |
EXP 1: Color Word Vigilance and SRT (attention); Key Tapping and manual dexterity tasks (screw manual dexterity and thumb tapping) EXP2: digit classification (attention/processing speed), revised color word vigilance (attention/EF), digit addition (EF) |
EXP1: no effect of cold on attention while manual dexterity was reduced EXP2: effect of cold on attention/processing speed and EF |
ACE: acute cold exposure; ANAM-ICE: Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metric for Isolated and Confined Environments; CANTAB: Cambridge Neuropsychological test Automated Battery; CP: cognitive performance; CRT: choice reaction time; CT: cognitive test; EF: executive function; exp: experiment; HC: healthy control; M: male; NA: not available; OTS: one touch stocking of Cambridge; SD, standard deviation; STM: short term memory; SRT: simple reaction time; T: temperature; Tsk: skin temperature; Tre: rectal temperature; WHO-NCTB: World Health Organization Neurobehavioral Core Test Battery; WM: working memory; y: years.