Table 4.
Included studies with types of reinforcing agents used in PMMA heat-cured denture base resin and their outcomes corresponding to testing parameters.
| Ref. | Testing Method | Reinforcing Agent/s Used | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| [28] | FS, FT | Treated 0.25 and 0.5 wt.% double-modified organoclay nanoparticles | ↑↑ FS and FT in both 0.25 and 0.5 wt.% nanoparticles groups |
| [29] | FS | Ag, TiO2, ZrO2, Al2O3, SiC, SiC-nano, Si3N4, and HA-nano in ratios of 10 wt.% to PMMA | ↔ between the study groups |
| [30] | SH | ZrO2 (14 nm), SiO2 (12 nm), and diamond nanoparticles (19 nm) in concentrations of 0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 2.5%, and 5.0% by weight of acrylic powder | ↑↑ in SH compared to Control |
| [31] | FS, FM | Microcrystalline cellulose with 2 or 5% by weight | ↑↑ FS, FM in 5 wt.% group |
| [32] | FS | 1 wt.% or 5 wt.% of SiO2 or prepolymer nanoparticles | ↓↓ FS in experimental groups compared to control group |
| [33] | FS | 1, 3, or 5 wt.% of Al2O3 (18 nm), SiO2 (15 nm), or TiO2 (13 nm) nanoparticles | 1 wt.% of nanoparticles ↑↑ FS |
| [34] | FS, EM, FT | Polyvinyl alcohol aligned and non- aligned nanofiber with 0.05% w/w, 0.25% w/w, 1% w/w, or 1.25% w/w. | Aligned nanofiber ↑↑ increased the mechanical properties of denture base resin |
| [35] | FS | Treated glass fillers (1%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10% by weight) 1.5 µm sized | FS ↓ as glass filler uploading ↑ |
| [36] | FT | Silanated nano barium titanate at 5 wt.% | ↑↑ FT in the experimental group |
| [37] | FS, FM | Treated aramid fibers with four orientations (unidirectional, woven, non-woven, and paper-type) | unidirectional and woven aramid fibers ↑↑ FS & FM |
| [38] | FS, FM, FT | GL, aramid, and UHMWPE fibers at volume concentrations of 2.6%, 5.3%, and 7.9%, respectively | Combination of GL/UHMWPE fibers showed ↑↑ FT and FS |
| [39] | FS | GF, aramid, nylon at 4 wt.% (5 mm in length) | ↑↑ FS in GF and aramid reinforced groups |
| [40] | FR | GF (chopped strand mat, continuous or woven) at 2.5, 3, 4, 5 vol.% | ↑ fracture resistance in all forms of GF |
| [41] | FS, FT, FM | E-Glass FiBER FORCE | ↑ mechanical properties were observed |
| [42] | FS | Treated and untreated ZrO2 nanotubes (8 µm in length) | 2.0 wt.% ZrO2 nanotubes ↑ FS |
| [43] | FS, SH | Silane treated fine or coarse mica particles (30 µm and 131 µm) at 10 vol.% or 20 vol.% | ↓ FS, however, ↑ SH with 20 vol.% mica reinforcement |
| [44] | FS, FM | Silanized nano SiO2 (36 nm in size) at 0.25, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, and 15 wt.% | 1 wt.% presented ↑ FS while 10 % 15 wt.% showed ↑ FM |
| [45] | FS, IS | Nanodiamond (30–40 nm in size) at 0.5, 1, and 1.5 wt.% | 0.5 wt.% reinforced PMMA displayed ↑↑ FS. Control group showed ↑↑ IS |
| [46] | FS, SH | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15, or 20 wt.% aluminum borate whiskers (5–30 µm in length) | Silanized ABWs ↑ FS, SH. Optimal loading was 5 wt. % while 15 wt.% for SH |
| [47] | SH, FT | 0.023%, 0.046%, 0.091%, 0.23%, 0.46%, and 0.91% by vol. of SiO2 nanoparticles | 0.023% resulted in ↑ SH and FT |
| [48] | IS, FT | 1% TiO2 and 1% ZrO2, 2% Al2O3, 2% TiO2, and 2% ZrO2 by volume | IS and FT values ↑↑ |
| [49] | FS | Silanized Al2O3 (0.1, 0.2, or 0.4 wt.%) 18–23 µm in size | 0.1 wt.% Al2O3 showed ↑↑ FS |
| [50] | TS, FS, CS | 10%, 20%, and 30% by volume Ag and Al | CS ↑↑ while TS and FS ↓ at 30 vol.% |
| [51] | FS | Treated S-glass fiber, nylon fiber | ↑↑ in S-glass reinforced PMMA |
| [52] | FS | Hydrogen plasma-treated polypropylene fibers (2.5. 5 & 10 wt.%) | ↑↑ FS in tested groups |
| [53] | FS, IS, SH | Borax, boric acid, colemanite | The addition of 1% Colemanite to PMMA ↑ mechanical properties |
| [54] | FS, EM, SH | Halloysite nanotubes at 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 wt.% | 0.3 wt% halloysite nanotubes ↑ mechanical properties |
| [55] | FS, SH | Silanized nano ZrO₂ and nano aluminum borate whiskers at 1, 2, 3, and 4 wt.% | The mechanical behaviours of silanized ZrO₂-ABW/PMMA composites ↑↑ improved |
| [56] | FS, SH | Treated 2.5 wt%, and 5 wt% of TiO2 nanotubes | ↑↑ FS and SH in experimental groups |
Key: ↑↑ = significant increase, ↑= increase, ↔ = no significant change, ↓ = decrease, ↓↓ = significant decrease, FRC = fiber reinforced composite, GL = glass, GF = glass fiber, UHMWPE = ultra high molecular weight polyethylene, FR = fatigue resistance, FS = flexural strength, SH = surface hardness EM = elastic modulus, IS = impact strength, FT = fracture toughness, FM = flexural modulus, TS = tensile strength, CS = compressive strength.