Table 1.
The effects of bare GNPs on the production of inflammatory and oxidant parameters.
| Characterization of GNP | Animal Model/Cell Line | Mechanism of Actions | Main Effect | Ref. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inflammatory | Anti-Inflammatory | Anti-Oxidant | ||||
| 5, 15, 20, and 35 nm GNPs | C57BL/6 male mice—THP-1 cells | -Decreased TNF-a | ✔ | [96] | ||
| -Decreased HIF-1 | ||||||
| -Decreased NF-kB | ||||||
| -Down-regulation of IL-1β-induced inflammatory by reducing NF-kB. | ||||||
| -The 5 nm AuNPs completely blocked the inflammatory process, 15 nm AuNPs were less effective, and 35 nm AuNPs did not display a statistically significant effect. | ||||||
| 35 mm | Rat | -Decreased IL-1b | ✔ | [101] | ||
| -Decreased TNF-a | ||||||
| 10 nm | Rat | -Decreased IL-1b | ✔ | [91] | ||
| -Decreased TNF-a | ||||||
| 50 nm | RAW 264.7 macrophages | -Decreased IL-1b | ✔ | ✔ | [95] | |
| -Decreased ROS | ||||||
| -Reduced interleukin (IL)-17 and TNFα triggered by LPS | ||||||
| 15 nm | Mice | -Reduced interleukin (IL)-17a | ✔ | [68] | ||
| -Reduced neutrophil recruitment | ||||||
| -Increased IL-10 levels | ||||||
| 6.3 nm | Mice | -Reduced the levels of IL-1, IL-5, and IL-6 in the BAL | ✔ | ✔ | [124] | |
| -Reduced IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-13, eotaxin-1, and eotaxin-2 in lung tissue | ||||||
| -Inhibited inflammatory infiltration in the airways | ||||||
| -Significant reduction in the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) | ||||||
| 10 and 50 nm | Rat Liver | -Both sizes significantly transient increase cytokine gene expression include TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β | ✔ | [81] | ||
| -The GNPs with 50 nm size induced more severe inflammatory responses compared to smaller GNPs. | ||||||
| 3, 11, 16, 30, and 40 nm | RAW264.7 (ATCC, TIB-71) SV40-transformed endothelial cells SVEC4-10 7 (ATCC, CRL-2181) and the murine mesenchymal stem cell line C3H10T1/2 (ATCC, CCL-226) |
-Macrophage production of the monocyte chemoattractant RANTES/CCL5 depended on GNP size, i.e., GNP 11 nm significantly decreased CCL5 secretion while GNP 16 nm had the opposite effect. | ✔ | [125] | ||
| -Enhanced TNFα secretion | ||||||
| -Did not induce IL-10 secretion | ||||||
| 10, 30, 50, and 80 nm | BALB/c mice | -50 nm GNP significantly induced the M1 macrophage phenotype. | ✔ | [123] | ||
| -Increased IL-b, IL-6, and TNF-a in 50 nm nanospheres treatment | ||||||
| -50 nm GNP via activation of the NF-κB signal pathway led to SAA activation | ||||||
| 50–250 nm | Wistar-derived rats | -Increased of in IL-6 and TNF-a 250 nm single GNPs | ✔ | [118] | ||
| -Significant increase in immune cells, especially macrophages | ||||||
| -Increased MCP-1 and MIP-2 | ||||||
| -Increased TNF-α and IL-6 levels after treatment with 250 nm single GNPss | ||||||
| -Increased neutrophils after 24 h along with single 250 nm particles | ||||||
| 10–15 nm | RAW264.7 cells | -Blocked the activation | ✔ | ✔ | [107] | |
| -Inhibitory effects on IFN-b mRNA expression | ||||||
| -Attenuate nitric oxide levels | ||||||
| 20 nm | Rat | -Decreased IL-1β | ✔ | ✔ | [90] | |
| -Downregulated mRNA expression of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, and NF-kB | ||||||
| Up to 5 nm | Mice | -All cytokines were unaffected along with intermediate concentrations (2.5–5 ppm) | ✔ | [126] | ||
| TNF-α and IL-1β significantly decreased along with the highest concentration (10 ppm) but stimulated IL-6. | ||||||
| Production of TNF-α and IL-2 was decreased along with low concentrations but stimulated IL-1α | ||||||
| 25–50 nm | NHDF and NHEK | -Decreased TNF-a | ✔ + antiangiogenic activity |
[127] | ||
| -Decreased IL-6 | ||||||
| -Decreased of IL-2 levels | ||||||
| -Decreased proteins involved in angiogenesis such as VEGF and bFGF. | ||||||
| 20 nm | RAW264.7 cells | -Decreased gene expression of MMP-2/-9, CX3CL-1, CCL-8, CX3CL-10, ICAM, IL-1α, and TNF-α in a dose-dependent manner | ✔ | ✔ | [89] | |
| -Inhibited of NF-κB pathway via ERK1/2MAPK/Akt/tuber in-mTOR kinases interference, which resulted in reducing oxidative-nitrosative stress | ||||||
| Auranofin | -Blocked IL-6 | ✔ | [128] | |||
| -Blockaded of JAK1/STAT3 signalling. | ||||||
| Au-S = 2.81 Au-M = 5.52 Au-L = 38.05 |
cell culture | -GNPs (especially those with a smaller diameter) up-regulate the expressions of pro-inflammatory genes | ✔ | [113] | ||
| -IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-a. | ||||||
| -Expressions of proinflammatory genes decreased with the increased size of AuNPs | ||||||
| 10 and 50 nm | Rat | -Increased cytokines gene expression by both sizes of GNPs (10 and 50 nm) in the liver | [120] | |||
| -The GNPs with 50 nm size induced severe inflammatory response compared with smaller GNP size | ||||||
| -The GNPs do not have any effect on IL-1β in the kidney | ||||||
| -The GNPs with 10 nm size do not have any effect on TNF-𝛼 and IL-6 gene expression | ||||||
| -The GNPs with 50 nm size significantly increase expression of IL-6 and TNF-𝛼 in the kidneys of rats | ||||||
| 10–50 nm | Leukemic cell lines (T-lymphocytic Jurkat and monocytic U937 cells) | -Stimulated TNF-α production | ✔ | [129] | ||
| -Inhibited interleukin-6 | ||||||
| -Inhibited interleukin-2 production | ||||||
| 5.5 nm | Cell culture (HUVECs; VECs) | -Reduced TNF-a | ✔ | ✔ | [93] | |
| -Reduced monocyte adhesion to VECs in vitro and arterial | ||||||
| -Reduced NF-kB | ||||||
| -Reduced ROS | ||||||
| 25 nm | Wistar rats | -Decreased TNF-a | ✔ | ✔ | [130] | |
| -Decreased IL-6 | ||||||
| -Decreased SOD and Catalase (CAT) activity | ||||||
| -Decreased superoxide and Nitrite levels | ||||||
| 16–25 nm | Wistar rats | -Decreased TNF-α levels | ✔ | ✔ | [131] | |
| -Decreased IL-6 levels | ||||||
| -Significant decrease in antioxidant markers such as -GSH, SOD and CAT in the colon. | ||||||
| 30–40 nm | Rat/in vitro | -Downregulation of TNF-a | ✔ | [132] | ||
| -Controlled IL-6 secretion | ||||||
| -Upregulation IL-10 | ||||||