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Pathways between the intestines and the central nervous system (CNS). Figure illustrates how the gut microbiota can interact with CNS through several pathways. Firstly, through produced metabolites such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) [38]; secondly, directly with neurotransmitters for example dopamine and serotonin [39,40,41]; and lastly, indirectly influencing the release of enteric hormones [44,45,46].
