Table 2.
Parent-reported outcomes of behavior at 7 years of age 1.
| Outcome | DHA Weighted Mean (95% CI) n = 259 |
Placebo Weighted Mean (95% CI) n = 284 |
Un-Adjusted Estimate (95% CI) |
Un-Adjusted p | Un-Adjusted Interaction p 3 | Adjusted Estimate (95% CI) 2 | Adjusted p | Adjusted Interaction p 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| BRIEF | ||||||||
| Global Executive Composite 4 | 54.89 (53.71, 56.07) | 52.54 (51.32, 53.76) | 2.35 (0.66, 4.04) | 0.01 | 0.10 | 2.38 (0.67, 4.08) | 0.01 | 0.08 |
| Females | 54.33 (52.87, 55.80) | 53.43 (51.66, 55.21) | 0.90 (−1.39, 3.20) | 0.44 | 0.86 (−1.44, 3.16) | 0.46 | ||
| Males | 55.49 (53.62, 57.36) | 51.69 (49.99, 53.38) | 3.80 (1.28, 6.33) | <0.01 | 3.93 (1.43, 6.44) | <0.01 | ||
| Behavioral Regulation Index 4 | 53.66 (52.49, 54.83) | 51.54 (50.31, 52.76) | 2.12 (0.43, 3.81) | 0.01 | 0.10 | 2.09 (0.40, 3.79) | 0.02 | 0.10 |
| Females | 53.44 (51.95, 54.93) | 52.76 (51.09, 54.43) | 0.68 (−1.55, 2.91) | 0.55 | 0.68 (−1.59, 2.96) | 0.56 | ||
| Males | 53.89 (52.06, 55.73) | 50.36 (48.58, 52.15) | 3.53 (0.97, 6.08) | 0.01 | 3.55 (1.02, 6.07) | 0.01 | ||
| Inhibit scale | 53.23 (52.08, 54.39) | 50.86 (49.73, 51.99) | 2.37 (0.76, 3.98) | <0.01 | 0.39 | 2.40 (0.79, 4.00) | <0.01 | 0.31 |
| Females | 53.02 (51.56, 54.49) | 51.37 (49.85, 52.88) | 1.66 (−0.45, 3.76) | 0.12 | 1.57 (−0.54, 3.68) | 0.15 | ||
| Males | 53.46 (51.65, 55.28) | 50.38 (48.71, 52.05) | 3.08 (0.63, 5.54) | 0.01 | 3.24 (0.80, 5.69) | <0.01 | ||
| Shift scale | 53.14 (51.89, 54.39) | 51.07 (49.88, 52.25) | 2.07 (0.36, 3.78) | 0.02 | 0.02 | 2.05 (0.33, 3.78) | 0.02 | 0.04 |
| Females | 52.44 (50.77, 54.11) | 52.39 (50.72, 54.05) | 0.05 (−2.28, 2.39) | 0.96 | 0.27 (−2.13, 2.66) | 0.83 | ||
| Males | 53.89 (52.01, 55.77) | 49.81 (48.12, 51.50) | 4.08 (1.56, 6.60) | <0.01 | 3.89 (1.37, 6.41) | <0.01 | ||
| Emotional Control scale | 53.48 (52.32, 54.65) | 52.48 (51.22, 53.74) | 1.01 (−0.71, 2.72) | 0.25 | 0.20 | 0.95 (−0.78, 2.67) | 0.28 | 0.18 |
| Females | 53.40 (51.85, 54.95) | 53.55 (51.79, 55.31) | −0.15 (−2.49, 2.19) | 0.90 | −0.21 (−2.59, 2.16) | 0.86 | ||
| Males | 53.57 (51.80, 55.34) | 51.45 (49.64, 53.26) | 2.12 (−0.41, 4.66) | 0.10 | 2.14 (−0.36, 4.64) | 0.09 | ||
| Metacognition Index 4 | 54.68 (53.51, 55.84) | 52.49 (51.29, 53.69) | 2.19 (0.52, 3.86) | 0.01 | 0.15 | 2.25 (0.57, 3.92) | 0.01 | 0.12 |
| Females | 54.01 (52.51, 55.50) | 53.03 (51.25, 54.81) | 0.98 (−1.34, 3.30) | 0.41 | 0.94 (−1.37, 3.24) | 0.43 | ||
| Males | 55.40 (53.59, 57.21) | 51.97 (50.35, 53.59) | 3.43 (1.01, 5.86) | 0.01 | 3.60 (1.19, 6.02) | <0.01 | ||
| Initiate scale | 53.12 (52.08, 54.17) | 52.09 (50.96, 53.22) | 1.03 (−0.51, 2.57) | 0.19 | 0.05 | 1.05 (−0.51, 2.62) | 0.19 | 0.03 |
| Females | 52.03 (50.55, 53.50) | 52.53 (50.75, 54.31) | −0.50 (−2.82, 1.81) | 0.67 | −0.59 (−2.90, 1.71) | 0.62 | ||
| Males | 54.31 (52.83, 55.78) | 51.67 (50.26, 53.08) | 2.63 (0.59, 4.68) | 0.01 | 2.75 (0.69, 4.80) | 0.01 | ||
| Working Memory scale | 54.46 (53.28, 55.65) | 52.79 (51.60, 53.98) | 1.67 (−0.02, 3.35) | 0.05 | 0.07 | 1.88 (0.20, 3.57) | 0.03 | 0.03 |
| Females | 52.67 (51.24, 54.10) | 52.50 (50.83, 54.17) | 0.17 (−2.03, 2.37) | 0.88 | 0.09 (−2.13, 2.31) | 0.94 | ||
| Males | 56.40 (54.50, 58.31) | 53.08 (51.38, 54.78) | 3.32 (0.76, 5.89) | 0.01 | 3.73 (1.19, 6.28) | <0.01 | ||
| Plan/Organize scale | 55.52 (54.28, 56.76) | 53.31 (52.14, 54.48) | 2.21 (0.51, 3.91) | 0.01 | 0.05 | 2.20 (0.49, 3.92) | 0.01 | 0.06 |
| Females | 55.01 (53.52, 56.50) | 54.52 (52.80, 56.24) | 0.49 (−1.78, 2.75) | 0.67 | 0.56 (−1.71, 2.84) | 0.63 | ||
| Males | 56.07 (54.04, 58.09) | 52.15 (50.56, 53.74) | 3.91 (1.34, 6.49) | <0.01 | 3.89 (1.30, 6.48) | <0.01 | ||
| Organization of Materials scale | 54.71 (53.60, 55.81) | 52.85 (51.85, 53.86) | 1.85 (0.35, 3.35) | 0.02 | 0.73 | 1.80 (0.29, 3.31) | 0.02 | 0.84 |
| Females | 55.37 (53.81, 56.93) | 53.28 (51.80, 54.76) | 2.09 (−0.07, 4.24) | 0.06 | 1.95 (−0.19, 4.10) | 0.07 | ||
| Males | 54.00 (52.43, 55.57) | 52.45 (51.07, 53.82) | 1.55 (−0.53, 3.63) | 0.14 | 1.64 (−0.47, 3.75) | 0.13 | ||
| Monitor scale | 52.51 (51.28, 53.73) | 49.48 (48.24, 50.72) | 3.03 (1.29, 4.77) | <0.01 | 0.37 | 2.99 (1.25, 4.72) | <0.01 | 0.35 |
| Females | 52.42 (50.90, 53.94) | 50.20 (48.39, 52.02) | 2.21 (−0.14, 4.57) | 0.07 | 2.17 (−0.17, 4.51) | 0.07 | ||
| Males | 52.61 (50.65, 54.56) | 48.79 (47.08, 50.50) | 3.82 (1.23, 6.41) | <0.01 | 3.83 (1.26, 6.40) | <0.01 | ||
| Conners 3TM AI-parent | ||||||||
| ADHD t score 4 | 60.94 (59.10, 62.78) | 58.37 (56.74, 60.00) | 2.56 (0.13, 5.00) | 0.04 | 0.04 | 2.84 (0.38, 5.30) | 0.02 | 0.02 |
| Females | 59.43 (57.14, 61.73) | 59.36 (56.96, 61.76) | 0.07 (−3.23, 3.38) | 0.97 | −0.03 (−3.35, 3.29) | 0.99 | ||
| Males | 62.56 (59.64, 65.48) | 57.43 (55.21, 59.64) | 5.13 (1.50, 8.77) | 0.01 | 5.79 (2.13, 9.44) | <0.01 | ||
| SDQ | ||||||||
| Total Difficulties Score 4 | 9.71 (9.07, 10.35) | 8.63 (7.99, 9.28) | 1.08 (0.17, 1.98) | 0.02 | 0.16 | 1.09 (0.18, 2.00) | 0.02 | 0.14 |
| Females | 8.89 (8.11, 9.67) | 8.43 (7.56, 9.29) | 0.47 (−0.69, 1.62) | 0.43 | 0.42 (−0.75, 1.58) | 0.48 | ||
| Males | 10.60 (9.58, 11.62) | 8.83 (7.86, 9.80) | 1.76 (0.36, 3.16) | 0.01 | 1.79 (0.40, 3.17) | 0.01 | ||
| Emotional Symptoms score | 2.21 (2.01, 2.41) | 1.97 (1.76, 2.18) | 0.24 (−0.05, 0.53) | 0.10 | 0.98 | 0.23 (−0.07, 0.52) | 0.13 | 0.84 |
| Females | 2.38 (2.07, 2.69) | 2.14 (1.85, 2.44) | 0.24 (−0.19, 0.66) | 0.28 | 0.25 (−0.18, 0.69) | 0.25 | ||
| Males | 2.03 (1.77, 2.28) | 1.80 (1.50, 2.10) | 0.23 (−0.16, 0.62) | 0.25 | 0.20 (−0.19, 0.58) | 0.32 | ||
| Conduct Problems score | 1.74 (1.56, 1.92) | 1.63 (1.45, 1.81) | 0.11 (−0.14, 0.36) | 0.39 | 0.21 | 0.10 (−0.15, 0.36) | 0.43 | 0.17 |
| Females | 1.55 (1.33, 1.77) | 1.59 (1.35, 1.84) | −0.04 (−0.37, 0.28) | 0.79 | −0.08 (−0.41, 0.26) | 0.65 | ||
| Males | 1.94 (1.65, 2.24) | 1.66 (1.40, 1.92) | 0.28 (−0.11, 0.67) | 0.16 | 0.29 (−0.10, 0.68) | 0.15 | ||
| Hyperactivity score | 4.13 (3.87, 4.39) | 3.67 (3.42, 3.92) | 0.45 (0.09, 0.82) | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.49 (0.13, 0.85) | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| Females | 3.58 (3.27, 3.89) | 3.52 (3.16, 3.88) | 0.06 (−0.42, 0.54) | 0.80 | 0.03 (−0.45, 0.51) | 0.91 | ||
| Males | 4.71 (4.29, 5.13) | 3.82 (3.47, 4.17) | 0.90 (0.35, 1.44) | <0.01 | 0.97 (0.43, 1.51) | <0.01 | ||
| Peer Problems score | 1.61 (1.41, 1.80) | 1.34 (1.16, 1.52) | 0.27 (0.01, 0.53) | 0.05 | 0.65 | 0.27 (0.01, 0.53) | 0.04 | 0.75 |
| Females | 1.38 (1.15, 1.61) | 1.16 (0.94, 1.38) | 0.22 (−0.10, 0.54) | 0.18 | 0.23 (−0.09, 0.54) | 0.17 | ||
| Males | 1.85 (1.54, 2.17) | 1.51 (1.23, 1.79) | 0.34 (−0.07, 0.76) | 0.11 | 0.31 (−0.10, 0.72) | 0.14 | ||
| Prosocial Behavior score | 8.12 (7.92, 8.32) | 8.18 (7.99, 8.38) | −0.06 (−0.34, 0.22) | 0.69 | 0.65 | −0.05 (−0.32, 0.23) | 0.74 | 0.45 |
| Females | 8.44 (8.19, 8.69) | 8.45 (8.19, 8.71) | −0.01 (−0.37, 0.35) | 0.95 | 0.06 (−0.30, 0.42) | 0.75 | ||
| Males | 7.78 (7.47, 8.09) | 7.92 (7.63, 8.21) | −0.14 (−0.56, 0.28) | 0.52 | −0.16 (−0.58, 0.27) | 0.47 | ||
| Impact score | 0.90 (0.73, 1.08) | 0.69 (0.53, 0.85) | 0.21 (−0.02, 0.45) | 0.08 | 0.65 | 0.23 (−0.01, 0.46) | 0.06 | 0.57 |
| Females | 0.59 (0.41, 0.78) | 0.42 (0.27, 0.57) | 0.18 (−0.07, 0.42) | 0.15 | 0.16 (−0.09, 0.41) | 0.22 | ||
| Males | 1.24 (0.94, 1.54) | 0.95 (0.68, 1.22) | 0.29 (−0.12, 0.69) | 0.17 | 0.30 (−0.10, 0.69) | 0.15 |
1 Data are presented as weighted mean (95% CI) with the effect estimate (95% CI) being the mean difference (DHA-Placebo). Analyses are based on 100 imputed datasets and were performed using linear regression models accounting for the sampling design and weights. 2 Adjusted for center, parity, infant sex, mother’s secondary education, mother’s further education, and mother’s smoking status. 3 p-value for infant sex by treatment group interaction term. 4 Data reported previously [38]. BRIEF: Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Conners 3TM AI-parent: Conners 3rd Edition Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders version IV Index. SDQ: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.