Table 2.
Gene editing
|
Principle of use
|
Advantages or application
|
Limitation
|
CRISPR-Cas9 guided gene editing: (1)NHEJ; and (2)HDR | Cas9 enzyme (an endonuclease) cleaves ds- DNA at a specific site as determined by the specific sequence of the guide RNA. Genome editing is done when the cell tries to repair the dsB (either via NHEJ or HDR) | Has the potential to edit genes in almost any cell type in vivo; Has potential in every field, notably infections[54], genetic disease[55], cancer[56] etc.; CRISPR-Cas9 can also be used for large scale loss-of-function gene screen: Catalytically inactive Cas9 (dCas9) can be directed by guide RNA, bind to specific genes to reversibly suppress or activate gene transcription (by fusion of transcription activators or suppressors with dCas9)[57]; Epigenetic modulators (e.g., DNA methylase) can also be fused with dCas9 to achieve controlled epigenetic modulations. Cas-9 NHEJ is simpler and efficient; Cas-9 HDR is more precise but lower efficiency than NHEJ. The mutant version of the Cas9 called Cas9 nickase can be used to minimize the risk of off-targets | The off-target activity of RNA-guided endonuclease-induced mutations[58]. Off-target mutations with a frequency below 0.5% cannot be detected by current off-target detection techniques[59] |
Augmented CRISPR-Cas12a system | Cas12a cuts target ds- DNA. However, unlike Cas9, Cas12a subsequently becomes activated and causes indiscriminate cleavage of ssDNA causing collateral damage. SARS-CoV-2 RNA DETECTR Assay: samples from upper airway swabs are processed using simultaneous reverse transcription and isothermal amplification with loop-mediated amplification (RT-LAMP). Subsequently the Cas12 enzyme is added | CRISPR-Cas12a system can be used to create new drug or cell delivery systems and bio-sensing (e.g., to detect methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Ebola virus[60]. Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) Only for qualitative detection of nucleic acid from the SARS-CoV-2 in upper respiratory specimens[61,62] | Limited research data and application. The technology is still in its infancy |
CRISPR-Cas 13 | CRISPR-Cas 13 system can be used via SHERLOCK technique for ultra-sensitive detection of RNA or DNA from the clinical samples | SherlockTM CRISPR SARS-CoV-2 kit: Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) qualitative for detection of nucleic acid fromSARS-CoV-2 in upper respiratory specimens[63,64] | |
Prime editors | It uses a catalytically impaired Cas9 which is fused to an engineered reverse transcriptase and prime editing guide RNA. The guide RNA specifies the target site and encodes the desired sequence | Prime editing is associated with fewer off-target edits when compared with conventional CRISPR-Cas system[65]. Anzalone et al[66] applied prime editing in human cells to correct the primary genetic causes of sickle cell disease and Tay-Sachs disease. It does not require double-strand breaks or donor DNA templates | Research literature on application of prime editing is limited. Unlike conventional CRISPR-Cas system prime editing may not be able to provide large DNA insertions or deletions[65] |
Zinc finger nucleases | Zinc finger nuclease (dimer of zinc finger hybrid bound to restriction endonuclease) is a programmable nuclease that cleaves specific sites in DNA. They recognize the target sequence through protein-DNA interaction | Potential for plant genome editing for crop improvement[67] | Necessity to engineer novel proteins for each target site: Expensive; Difficult to reproduce |
TALENS | TAL proteins have TAL effector DNA-binding domain fused to a DNA cleavage domain. TALENs create dsBs that require repair by NHEJ or HDR | The DNA-binding specificity of TALEs is easier to engineer than zinc-fingerProteins[68] | Necessity to engineer novel proteins for each target site. TALENs are large and pose packaging challenge in viral delivery systems[69] |
HDR: Homology-directed repair; NHEJ: Nonhomologous end-joining; SARS-CoV-2: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; TALENs: Transcription activator-like effector nucleases; dsBs: Double stranded breaks; ssDNA: Single stranded DNA; TAL: Transcription activator-like; SHERLOCK: Specific High Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter UnLOCKing.