Figure 2.

Alcohol-induced liver injury. Acetaldehyde (AA) is responsible for the majority of the toxic effects of alcohol on the liver. Acetaldehyde is extremely lipophilic, leading to the formation of acetaldehyde adducts—malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). This along with reactive oxygen species (ROS) leads to DNA damage and genotoxicity. Acetaldehyde also induces functional and structural alterations in various cell organelles (e.g., mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum). MEOS: mitochondrial enzyme oxidation system; ADH: alcohol dehydrogenase. Image created at biorender.com (accessed on 20 August 2021).