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. 2021 Sep 11;13(9):3170. doi: 10.3390/nu13093170

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Alcohol-induced inflammation. Alcohol exerts its effects on both the innate and adaptive immunity. Alcohol not only induces enteric dysbiosis, but also increases intestinal permeability. Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) interact with TLR4 receptor on Kupffer cells and produce proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines via the NF-κB pathway, leading to liver inflammation. Acetaldehyde induces structural changes in various proteins and generates neoantigens, which elicit an adaptive immune response and contribute to liver inflammation. CCL2: C-C motif chemokine ligand 2; DAMPs: damage-associated molecular patterns; 4-HNE: 4-hydroxynonenal; IL: interleukin; MDA: malondialdehyde; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa B; ROS: reactive oxygen species; TLR4: toll-like receptor 4; TNFα: tumor necrosis factor alpha; ↑: increased; ↓: decreased. Image created at biorender.com (accessed on 20 August 2021).