TABLE 2.

Influence of hormones and other agents acting on LSEC fenestrations.

	Fenestration diameter	Porosity	Fenestration frequency	References	Methods
Vasoactive stimuli
Vasodilators
Acetylcholine	+	nd	nd	Tsukada et al., 1986; Oda et al., 1990	SEM, in vivo, in vitro
Bethanechol	+	nd	nd	Oda et al., 1990	SEM, in vivo
Isoproterenol	+	nd	nd	Oda et al., 1990	SEM, in vivo, in vitro
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)	+	nd	nd	Oda et al., 1990	SEM, in vivo
BQ-123	++	nd	-	Watanabe et al., 2007	SEM, TEM, in vivo
Vasoconstrictors
Endothelin (ET)	-	-	nd	Oda et al., 1997; Kamegaya et al., 2002	SEM, in vitro
Neuropeptide Y	-	nd	nd	Oda et al., 1990	SEM, in vivo
Norepinephrine/noradrenaline	-	nd	nd	Tsukada et al., 1986; Oda et al., 1990	SEM, in vivo, in vitro
				Wisse et al., 1980	TEM, SEM, in vivo
Serotonin	-	nd	nd	Wisse et al., 1980; Braet et al., 1995a	SEM, TEM, in vivo
				Tanikawa et al., 1991	TEM, in vivo
				Braet et al., 1996c	SEM, AFM, in vitro
				Kalle et al., 1997	AFM, in vitro
Pilocarpin	-	nd	nd	Wisse et al., 1980	TEM, SEM, in vivo
Adrenaline/epinephrine	-	nd	nd	Wisse et al., 1980	TEM, SEM, in vivo
Signaling/Maintenance
Vascular endohelial growth factor (VEGF)	+	+++	++	Funyu et al., 2001; Yokomori et al., 2003	SEM, in vitro
				Carpenter et al., 2005	SEM, TEM, in vivo
				Xie et al., 2012b	SEM, in vivo, in vitro
Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)	Strain specific	Strain specific	Strain specific	Desroches-Castan et al., 2019a,b	(a) SEM, in vivo, in vitro (b) SEM, in vitro
Platelet derived growth factor (PDGF-B) signaling	nd	-	nd	Raines et al., 2011	TEM, in vivo
Liver X receptor (LXR)	NA	NA	NA	Xing et al., 2016	SEM, TEM, in vivo
Hedgehog (Hh) signaling	nd	-	nd	Xie et al., 2012a	SEM, in vitro
Plasmalemma vesicle associated protein (PLVAP)	+/-	+/-	+/-	Herrnberger et al., 2014	SEM, TEM, in vivo
				Auvinen et al., 2019	SEM, in vivo

“0,” no change; G, gaps; “nd,” no data; “NA,” not applicable. increase: “+,” <50%; “++,” 50–100%; “+++,” >100%; decrease: “-,” <50%; “- -,” >50%; “- - -,” defenestration.