TABLE 3.
Experimental models and lab tools affecting LSEC fenestrations.
| Fenestration diameter | Porosity | Fenestration frequency | References | Methods | |
| Cytoskeleton disruptors | |||||
| Cytochalasin B | 0/+ | +++ | +++ | Braet et al., 1996a,b,c | a/b AFM, SEM, in vitro c SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Steffan et al., 1987 | SEM, TEM, in vitro SEM, in vivo | ||||
| Braet et al., 1995a | TEM, in vitro | ||||
| Zapotoczny et al., 2017b, 2019b | AFM, in vitro live | ||||
| Spector et al., 1999 | FL, SEM, TEM, in vitro | ||||
| Oda et al., 1993 | SEM, TEM, in vitro | ||||
| Van Der Smissen et al., 1986 | TEM, in vitro, in vivo | ||||
| Steffan et al., 1986 | SEM, in vivo | ||||
| Kalle et al., 1997 | AFM, in vitro | ||||
| Cytochalasin D | 0/- | + | + | Svistounov et al., 2012; Hunt et al., 2019 | SEM, in vitro |
| Dihydrohalichondramide | - | nd | ++ | Braet et al., 2002 | SEM, in vitro |
| Halihondramide | - | nd | ++ | Braet et al., 2002 | SEM, in vitro |
| Jasplakinolide | - | nd | + | Zapotoczny et al., 2019b | AFM, in vitro live |
| Braet et al., 1998 | SEM, TEM, in vitro | ||||
| Spector et al., 1999 | FL, in vitro | ||||
| Latrunculin A | 0 | nd | ++ | Braet et al., 1996a | SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Spector et al., 1999 | FL, in vitro | ||||
| Braet et al., 1997 | SEM, in vitro | ||||
| Misakinolide | - | nd | ++ | Braet et al., 1998, 1999; Spector et al., 1999 | SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Swinholide A | - - | nd | +++ | Braet et al., 1998, 1999; Spector et al., 1999 | SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Disease models | |||||
| Dimethyl nitrosamine (DMN) | - | - - | nd | Fraser et al., 1991, 1995b; Rogers et al., 1992; Tamba-Lebbie et al., 1993 | SEM, in vivo |
| Endotoxin/LPS | -/G | - -/0 | - | Dobbs et al., 1994; Fraser et al., 1995b | SEM, in vivo |
| Frenzel et al., 1977; Ito et al., 2006a | SEM, TEM, in vivo | ||||
| Sasaoki et al., 1995 | SEM, in vitro | ||||
| Galactosamine + endotoxin | G | nd | - | Ito et al., 2006a | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| Galactosamine + endotoxin + matrix metaloproteinase | 0 | nd | 0 | Ito et al., 2006a | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| Monocrotaline | G | nd | - - | DeLeve et al., 1999 | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| DeLeve et al., 2003a, b | SEM, in vivo | ||||
| Monocrotaline + V-PYRRO/NO | 0 | 0 | nd | DeLeve et al., 2003b | SEM, in vivo |
| Poloxamer 407 | nd | nd | - - | Cogger et al., 2006 | SEM, TEM, in vitro, in vivo |
| Pyocyanin | nd | - - | nd | Cheluvappa et al., 2007 | SEM, in vitro |
| Thioacetamide (TAA) | - | - - | nd | Mori et al., 1993a,b | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| Xie et al., 2012b | SEM, in vivo | ||||
| Other | |||||
| Superoxide anion (SOA) and nitric oxide NO | G | nd | - | Deaciuc et al., 1999 | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| 7 keto cholesterol (7KC) | + | + | + | Svistounov et al., 2012; Hunt et al., 2019 | SEM, in vitro |
| Antimycin A | nd | - | - - - | Zapotoczny et al., 2017b | AFM, in vitro live |
| Braet et al., 2003 | SEM, TEM, in vitro | ||||
| Arsenic | nd | - - | nd | Straub et al., 2008 | SEM, TEM, in vitro, in vivo |
| C3 transferase | + | + | nd | Yokomori et al., 2004 | SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Calcium ionophore | - | nd | 0 | Zapotoczny et al., 2019a | AFM, in vitro |
| Oda et al., 1993 | SEM, TEM, in vivo | ||||
| Calmodulin agonist w7 | + | nd | nd | Oda et al., 1993 | SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Cyclopamine | nd | + | nd | Xie et al., 2012a | SEM, in vitro |
| Diamide | nd | nd | - - - | Zapotoczny et al., 2019a | AFM, in vitro live |
| Hydrogen peroxide | +/G | - -/+ | - | Cogger et al., 2001 | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| Straub et al., 2008 | SEM, TEM, in vitro, in vivo | ||||
| Iodoacetic acid | nd | nd | + | Zapotoczny et al., 2019a | AFM, in vitro live |
| Lysophosphatic acid (LPA) | - | nd | - - | Yokomori et al., 2004 | SEM, TEM, in vitro |
| Phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) | 0 | nd | - | de Zanger et al., 1997 | SEM, in vitro |
| S-nitroso-N-acetyl penicillamine (SNAP) | G | nd | 0 | Deaciuc et al., 1999 | SEM, TEM, in vivo |
| Staurosporine | 0 | nd | - | de Zanger et al., 1997 | SEM, in vitro |
| Tert-butyl hydroperoxide | G | + | 0 | Cogger et al., 2004 | SEM, TEM, in vitro, in vivo |
| Triton x100 | 0 | - - | nd | Svistounov et al., 2012 | SEM, in vitro |
| Trombospondin 1 | nd | - - | - - | Venkatraman and Tucker-Kellogg, 2013 | SEM, in vitro |
“0,” no change; G, gaps; nd, no data; increase: “+,” <50%; “++,” 50–100%; “+++,” >100%; decrease: “-,” <50%; “- -,” >50%; “- - -,” defenestration.