Table 1.

Summary of scaffold materials for biomedical sensing.

Material	Scaffold type	Technique	Analyte	Dynamic range	LOD(LOQ)	Ref.
Cancer biomarkers' detection (protein biomarkers)
HRP-AuNPs/DNA	DNA	electrochemical	PSA	–	1 pg/mL	[63]
CdS QDs-GCE/DNA tetrahedral/L-Au NPs	DNA	SPR-ECL	Telomerase	–	2.03 × 10−9 IU (CdS QDs) 1.45 × 10−9 IU (luminol)	[64]
CDs/ZrHf-MOF	Metal-based	electrochemical	HER2	0.001–10 ng/mL (HER2) 100–105 cells/mL (MCF-7 cells)	19 fg/mL (HER2) 23 cells/mL (MCF-7 cells)	[72]
AgNCs/Apt/UiO-66	Metal-based	DPV EIS SPR	CEA	0.01–10 ng/mL 0.01–10 ng/mL 1.0–250 ng/mL	4.93 pg/mL 8.88 pg/mL 0.3 ng/mL	[73]
Zn-MOF-on-ZrMOF	Metal-based	EIS DPV	PTK7	–	0.84 pg/mL 0.66 pg/mL	[75]
NIR-3D- CDHA	CDHA	fluorescence	ALP	–	10−5−10−3 U/mL	[76]
ZnO-coated 3D PDMS	Aptamer tetrahedral	colorimetric	Exosomes	2.2 × 105 − 2.4 × 107 particles/μL	–	[78]
Cancer biomarker detection (nucleic acid based biomarkers)
Ap-YTDS/DzW	YTDS	Fluorescence	miRNAs	–	–	[79]
TDN scaffold/HRP/GOx	TDN	Electrochemical	DNA	0.01 pM−10 nM	3 fM	[80]
Detection of cancer cells
Au NPs	Aptamer	Colorimetric	HL-60	10–104 cells/mL	10 cells/mL	[85]
Pharmaceutical detection
2D AuNCs/521-MOF/cocaine aptamer	MOF scaffold	Electrochemical (EIS and DPV)	Cocaine	0.001–1.0 ng mL−1	1.29 pM 2.22 pM	[24]
CV-loaded MSNS/cocain aptamer/AuNT/PEG	Mesoporous silica	SERS	Cocaine	–	10 nM	[25]
SPCE/Ag–P NPs	AgP-NPs	Electrochemical	Paracetamol	1−1000 μM 0.1–1900 μM	17.6 nM 0.39 nM	[26]
sfGFP/Car9-CT43 /ZnS:Mn nanocrystals	sfGFP	Optical	Chloramphenicol	–	–	[92]
AuNPs/thiol-functionalized 3D-silicate network	Flowerlike AuNPs	Electrochemical	Heparin	–	0.8 nM	[96]
HANPs/MWCNT-CHI/GCE	HA NPs/MWCNT-CHI	Electrochemical	Nitrofurantoin	0.005–982.1 μM	1.3 nM	[91]
CeO2/CuOx@mC900/aptasensor	Bimetallic MOF	Electrochemical	Tobramycine	21 fM −21 nM	4.2 fM	[97]
AuNRs -loaded PEG capsules/Ca2+-alginate hydrogel scaffold	Alginate hydrogel scaffold	Optical	Heparin	–	–	[109]
Glucose detection
Nanofiber/derivatives of 4-carboxy-3-fluorophenyl boronic acid	Boronic acid	Fluorescence	Glucose	–	–	[21]
GCE/NG-CuNS	N-GO	Electrochemical l	Glucose	0.0005–5.0 mM	14 nM	[22]
GA- and NDGA-crosslinked porous collagen scaffolds	Collagen	Amperometric	Glucose	2−30 mM	–	[23]
ECH	Collagen	ChA	Glucose	up to 10 mM	–	[106]
GOx/MoS2–TiO2/ITO	MoS2 nanosheets; TiO2 nanorods	PEC	Glucose	0.1–10.5 mM	15 μM	[111]
Ni(OH)2/CNT fiber	CNT	Electrochemical	Glucose	20 μM−10.5 mM	0.645 μM	[101]
P4VP-SWCNT/GOx film	SWCNT	Raman	Glucose	0.08–2.2 mM	–	[98]
PtCo/NPG/GP	3D-Nanoporous gold	Electrochemical	Glucose	35 μM − 30 mM	5 μM	[103]
Ag/α-Fe2O3/GOx/Nafion electrode	Spruce branched a-Fe2O3 nanostructures	Amperometric	Glucose	0.003–33 mM	1 μM	[102]
QD and AuNRs -loaded PEG capsules/Ca2+-alginate hydrogel scaffold	Alginate hydrogel scaffold	Optical	Glucose	–	–	[109]
GCE/graphene/pectin-CuNPs	Pectin	Electrochemical	Glucose	10 μM−5.5 mM	2.1 μM	[133]
Neurotransmitter detection
BSA–Pt NPs	BSA	Optical	Choline Acetylcholine	6–400 μM 10–200 μM	2.5 μM 2.84 μM	[28]
NeuroSensor 521 (NS521)/coumarin-3-aldehyde scaffold	Coumarin-3-aldehyde	Fluorescence	Dopamine Norepinephrine Glutamate	–	–	[29]
PA-DS/CNTs/modified graphite electrode	PA-DS	Electrochemical l	Dopamine	–	–	[30]
Metal ions detection
QG-scaffolded COFs	QG-scaffold	Fluorescence	Copper	0.0010–10.0 μM (blood) 0.0032–32.0 μM (waste water)	0.50 nM (blood) 2.4 nM (waste water)	[33]
ZnIC	Iminocoumarin	Fluorescence	Zinc	–	–	[121]
QD-Biopolymer TSPP	QDs-TSPP	Fluorescence	Zinc	0.05–4 μM	1 nM	[119]
Pyridine–pyridine	Pyridine–pyridine	Fluorescence	Zinc	0.25–100 μM	–	[120]
POEGMA-AuNP	POEGMA-AuNP	Colorimetry	Lead	0.1–100 nM	25 pM	[127]
3D gyroidal mesoporous aluminosilica pellets	3D-Gyroidal mesoporous aluminosilica pellets	Optical	Mercury	–	1.4 nM	[117]
Hydrogen peroxide detection
Thiolated HRP/AuNPs-PTA-TiO2 nanotube	Tubular TiO2 nanocluster	Electrochemical	Hydrogen peroxide	65–1600 μM	5 μM	[130]
Nanogel-coated biosensor	Nanogel	Electrochemical	Hydrogen peroxide	0.1–1.5 mM	2.5 μM	[131]
HRP/ZrO2-grafted collagen/DMSO/GE	Collagen	Electrochemical	Hydrogen peroxide	1.0–73.0 μM	down to 0.25 μM	[132]
GCE/graphene/pectin-CuNPs	Pectin	Electrochemical	Hydrogen peroxide	1 μM–1mM	0.35 μM	[133]
AuNFs/IL–GF/paper electrode	IL/GF	Electrochemical	Hydrogen peroxide	0.5 μM–2.3 mM	100 nM	[134]
GC/Pd@MSM-SO3H	MSM-SO3H	Electrochemical	Hydrogen peroxide	47.0 nM–1.0 mM	–	[27]
Amino acid and enzyme detection
BTP-Cys	BTP	Fluorescence	Cys	–	0.38 μM	[31]
AuNC–CoO	AuNCs and CoO	Electrochemical	Cys	0.1 nM–1.0 μM	16 pM	[32]
CNC/PVA/HEA-TDI (F-Acryl)	CNC/PVA	Fluorescence	Trypsin	–	–	[140]

3D-calcium deficient hydroxyapatite (CDHA), Y-shaped backbone-rigidified triangular DNA scaffolds (YTDS), tetrahedron (TDN) scaffolds, superfolded green fluorescent protein (sfGFP), Multi-walled carbon nanotubes/composite of chitosan hydrogel/hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (HA NPs/MWCNT-CHI) scaffolds, nitrogen-doped graphene oxide (N-GO), poly-(allylamine)/dodecyl sulfate (PA-DS), meso-tetra(4-sulfonatophenyl)porphine dihydro-chloride (TSPP), quantum dots (QDs), poly (oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (POEGMA) polymer functionalized AuNPs, ionic liquid (IL)/graphene framework (GF), 2,5-bis (benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl) (BTP), porous cellulose nanocrystal (CNC)/poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA).