Figure I.

FINAL MODEL FPR MATERNAL PARENTING BEHAVIORS (SPANKING, WARMTH) AS PREDICTORS OF CHANGE IN CHILD BEHAVIORS (AGGRESSION, SOCIAL COMPETENCE) FROM AGE 3 TO AGE 5 YEARS.

Note. All relationships in the above model were controlled for: child temperament, health, and sex; mothers’ parenting stress, depression, alcohol use, father-to-mother intimate partner violence, race, age, education, verbal skills, relationship status, and household income. All standard errors are adjusted for clustering by city. Standardized path coefficients are presented. Boldface paths correspond to the four study hypotheses. Dotted lines indicate nonsignificant relationships. **p < .01. ***p < .001.