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. 2021 Sep 27;11:19095. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-98550-3

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Derivation of path models for red-green abnormal color perception. (Panel A): A direct graphical representation of the hypothesis that UV-B affects the unmeasured physiology of color perception during the lifetime of an individual which, in turn, affects the existence of a dedicated word for blue in the person’s language (hypothesis 1). In addition, the physiology of color perception also drives an evolutionary interaction with alleles resulting in abnormal red/green color perception. (Panel B): a Structural Equation Modelling diagram representation of Panel A with operationalized variables. (Panel C): The latent variable ‘abn. blue perc.’, representing the unobserved abnormal color perception of blue, is indirectly measured by two indicators (‘daltonism’ and ‘blue’), while the latent ‘abn. red-green perc.’ (abnormal red/green color perception) is not of interest here. Therefore, we used ‘blue’ as a proxy for ‘abn. blue perc.’ and ignored ‘abn. red-green perc.’, leading to the path model shown here. Icons made by Freepik https://www.freepik.com from Flaticon https://www.flaticon.com/.