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. 2021 Sep 29;129(9):097011. doi: 10.1289/EHP9424

Table 4.

Adjusted estimates of natural indirect (lean body mass index mediated) and natural direct effects of maternal serum perfluoroalkyl substances concentrations on BMC z-scores at age 12 y: The Health Outcomes and Measures of the Environment (HOME) Study.

PFAS/Outcome Effect Overall (n=206) Males (n=93) Females (n=113)
PFOA
 Whole-body less head NIE 0.04 (0.13, 0.05) 0.09 (0.27, 0.05) 0.01 (0.14, 0.11)
NDE 0.02 (0.16, 0.09) 0.04 (0.23, 0.13) 0.05 (0.17, 0.22)
 Total hip NIE 0.04 (0.13, 0.05) 0.09 (0.29, 0.04) 0.01 (0.13, 0.11)
NDE 0.13 (0.28, 0.01) 0.15 (0.40, 0.06) 0.10 (0.33, 0.10)
 Femoral neck NIE 0.04 (0.14, 0.05) 0.09 (0.28, 0.05) 0.01 (0.15, 0.12)
NDE 0.01 (0.18, 0.13) 0.05 (0.31, 0.16) 0.03 (0.21, 0.24)
 Forearm NIE 0.04 (0.12, 0.04) 0.08 (0.24, 0.04) 0.01 (0.12, 0.11)
NDE 0.14 (0.32, 0.03) 0.18 (0.45, 0.06) 0.04 (0.29, 0.21)
 Spine NIE 0.03 (0.11, 0.04) 0.08 (0.24, 0.04) 0.01 (0.13, 0.08)
NDE 0.06 (0.21, 0.09) 0.13 (0.38, 0.11) 0.02 (0.23, 0.26)
PFNA
 Whole-body less head NIE 0.07 (0.18, 0.04) 0.01 (0.23, 0.22) 0.11 (0.24, 0.00)
NDE 0.01 (0.17, 0.14) 0.07 (0.32, 0.24) 0.05 (0.16, 0.24)
 Total hip NIE 0.06 (0.18, 0.04) 0.01 (0.24, 0.23) 0.10 (0.24, 0.00)
NDE 0.12 (0.30, 0.06) 0.21 (0.55, 0.16) 0.06 (0.27, 0.16)
 Femoral neck NIE 0.07 (0.19, 0.04) 0.01 (0.24, 0.23) 0.12 (0.26, 0.01)
NDE 0.01 (0.18, 0.20) 0.02 (0.35, 0.37) 0.06 (0.19, 0.29)
 Forearm NIE 0.06 (0.17, 0.03) 0.01 (0.21, 0.20) 0.09 (0.24, 0.01)
NDE 0.19 (0.39, 0.00) 0.18 (0.51, 0.15) 0.17 (0.46, 0.09)
 Spine NIE 0.06 (0.15, 0.03) 0.01 (0.20, 0.20) 0.09 (0.23, 0.01)
NDE 0.05 (0.24, 0.14) 0.06 (0.38, 0.29) 0.03 (0.27, 0.22)
PFHxS
 Whole-body less head NIE 0.01 (0.04, 0.08) 0.08 (0.03, 0.23) 0.02 (0.10, 0.04)
NDE 0.01 (0.10, 0.08) 0.03 (0.10, 0.16) 0.02 (0.16, 0.10)
 Total hip NIE 0.02 (0.04, 0.08) 0.08 (0.03, 0.24) 0.02 (0.09, 0.04)
NDE 0.05 (0.16, 0.05) 0.00 (0.19, 0.18) 0.10 (0.23, 0.04)
 Femoral neck NIE 0.02 (0.05, 0.08) 0.08 (0.03, 0.24) 0.02 (0.11, 0.04)
NDE 0.01 (0.10, 0.12) 0.00 (0.21, 0.19) 0.00 (0.13, 0.14)
 Forearm NIE 0.01 (0.04, 0.07) 0.07 (0.02, 0.20) 0.02 (0.11, 0.03)
NDE 0.03 (0.14, 0.07) 0.01 (0.20, 0.17) 0.07 (0.22, 0.08)
 Spine NIE 0.01 (0.04, 0.07) 0.07 (0.03, 0.20) 0.02 (0.08, 0.03)
NDE 0.03 (0.13, 0.07) 0.05 (0.23, 0.11) 0.02 (0.15, 0.11)
PFOS
 Whole-body less head NIE 0.03 (0.10, 0.04) 0.00 (0.13, 0.15) 0.06 (0.17, 0.02)
NDE 0.01 (0.10, 0.11) 0.06 (0.10, 0.22) 0.01 (0.19, 0.16)
 Total hip NIE 0.03 (0.10, 0.04) 0.00 (0.13, 0.16) 0.06 (0.16, 0.02)
NDE 0.04 (0.16, 0.08) 0.03 (0.26, 0.19) 0.08 (0.25, 0.07)
 Femoral neck NIE 0.03 (0.11, 0.04) 0.00 (0.13, 0.15) 0.07 (0.19, 0.03)
NDE 0.04 (0.11, 0.17) 0.03 (0.21, 0.24) 0.04 (0.16, 0.22)
 Forearm NIE 0.03 (0.11, 0.03) 0.00 (0.12, 0.13) 0.06 (0.18, 0.01)
NDE 0.04 (0.19, 0.10) 0.10 (0.12, 0.32) 0.13 (0.37, 0.08)
 Spine NIE 0.03 (0.09, 0.03) 0.00 (0.12, 0.13) 0.06 (0.16, 0.01)
NDE 0.01 (0.14, 0.12) 0.03 (0.24, 0.21) 0.00 (0.19, 0.17)

Note: Difference (95% confidence interval) in outcome z-score per log2 unit increase in perfluoroalkyl substance concentration estimated in separate linear regression models adjusted for maternal age at delivery, midpregnancy BMI, race/ethnicity, household income, parity, prenatal vitamin use, average blood lead concentration, and child age at follow-up. Models for the overall population are additionally adjusted for child sex and child sex by child age at follow-up. Indirect and direct effects were estimated using structural equation models, maximum likelihood estimation, and bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap confidence intervals. Missing covariate information accounted for using full-information maximum likelihood. BMC, bone mineral content; BMI, body mass index; NDE, natural direct effect; NIE, natural indirect effect; PFHxS, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid; PFNA, perfluorononanoic acid; PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonic acid.