Table 1.
Summary of imaging probes for gliosis.
| Target | Tracer | Human | Animal model |
|---|---|---|---|
| TSPO | (R)-[11C] PK11195 | MCI, AD, HC (37–43) | 3×Tg, APP/PS1 mice, rTg4510 mice (26, 44) |
| [18F]DPA-714 | AD, MS, ALS, HC (45, 46) | APP/PS1 mice, TgF344 rats (47–51) | |
| [11C]DPA-713 | AD, HC (52) | Murine stroke models (53), aged Monkeys (54) | |
| [18F]F-DPA | APP/PS1 mice (55) | ||
| [18F]FEBMP | PS19, rTg4510 mice (56–58) | ||
| [11C]DAA1106, [18F]FEDAA1106 | AD, HC | APP23, APP/PS1, PS19 mice, TgF334 rats (50, 59, 60) | |
| [18F]FEMPA | AD, HC (61, 62) | ||
| [11C]AC-5216 | HC (63) | APP23, AppNL-G-F/NL-G-F-knock-in, APPE693, rTg4510, PS19 mice (26, 57, 60, 64, 65) | |
| [18F]FEPPA | MCI, AD, HC (66, 67) | TgAPP21 rats (68) | |
| [11C]PBR06 | MCI, AD, HC (69–71) | APPL/S mice (57, 72, 73) | |
| [11C]PBR28 | AD, SD, MCI, FTD, DLB, ALS, HC (40, 69, 74–82) | 5×FAD, PS19 mice (57, 73) | |
| [18F]PBR111 | APP/PS1 mice (83, 84) | ||
| [125I]CLINDE | AD, HC (85) | LPS injected, 3×Tg mice, TgF344 rats (85–87) | |
| [18F]GE-180 | AD, MS, FTD, HC (88–91) | APP/PS1, PS2APP, APP23, APP-SL70, APPswe, APPNL-G-F, APPL/S, Trem2 p.T66M knock-in, PS19 mice, TgF344 rats (47, 50, 53, 90, 92–102) | |
| (S)-[18F]GE-387, (R, S)-[18F]GE-387 | HC (103) | LPS injected rats, non-human primates (103, 104) | |
| [11C]ER176 | HC (75, 105, 106) | ||
| [11C]CB184, [11C]CB190 | Mice, 6-OHDA injected rats (107) | ||
| [11C]N′-MPB | Stroke rat model (108) | ||
| [18F]LW223 | HC (109) | Rats (109) | |
| P2X7R | [11C]GSK1482160 | HC (110) | LPS-injected mice, EAE rats, non-human primates (110, 111) |
| [18F]JNJ-64413739 | HC (112), ALS (113) | LPS injected mice (112, 114) | |
| [11C]JNJ-54173717 | ALS (113) | rAAV3flag-hP2X7R, α-synuclein, 6-OHDA injected rats, non-human primates (115, 116). | |
| [11C]SMW139 | MS (117) | EAE, rAAV3flag-hP2X7R rats (118, 119) | |
| [11C]JNJ-47965567 (A-740003) | MS (120) | Rats (121) | |
| P2Y12R | [11C]P2Y12R-ant | MS (120) | EAE rats (120) |
| [11C]5 | Stroke (122) | Murine stroke model (122) | |
| [11C]AZD1283 | rTg4510, PS19, APP23, and APPNL-F/NL-F mice, ex vivo (123) | ||
| CSF1R | [11C]CPPC | AD, HC (124) | LPS injected, EAE, APPsi, APPNL-G-F/NL-G-Fknock-in mice (64, 124) |
| [11C]GW2580 | LPS injected, APPNL-G-F/NL-G-Fknock-in mice, non-human primates (64) | ||
| COX-1 | [11C]-KTP-Me | AD, HC (125, 126) | APPswe mice (125–127) |
| [11C]PS13, [18F]PS2 | LPS treated rhesus macaques (128) | ||
| COX-2 | [11C]MC1 | LPS treated rhesus macaques (129) | |
| [18F]FMTP | LPS injected mice (130) | ||
| [18F]TMI | Non-human primates (131) | ||
| iNOS | [18F]FBAT | LPS injected mice (132) | |
| ROS | [18F]ROStrace [18F]ox-ROStrace, | LPS-treated mice (133) | |
| [18F]dihydromethidine, | LPS-treated mice (134) | ||
| [11C]Ascorbic. [11C]dehydroascorbic acid | Rats (135) | ||
| [62Cu]ATSM | PD, ALS, MELAS (136, 137) | Brain tumor mice (138, 139) | |
| TREM-2 | [124I]mAb1729,mAb1729-scFv8D3CL | APPArcSwe, APPswe mice (140) | |
| TREM-1 | [64Cu]TREM1-mAb | Murine stroke, MS, GBM models (141–143) | |
| Murine glioma and metastatic breast cancer model (144–146) | |||
| MMP | [18F]BR-351, [18F]BR-420 | Murine stroke models (147, 148) | |
| CB2R | [11C]A-836339, [18F]2f | HC (149) | J20APPswe/ind, APP/PS1 mice (150) |
| [18F]RS-126, [18F]RoSMA-18-d6 | LPS injected, Huntington, stroke mice (151, 152) | ||
| [18F]JHU94620 | LPS injected mice (153) | ||
| [11C]NE40 | AD, HC (154) | SAMP10 mice (155) | |
| MAO-B | [11C]DED | MCI, AD, HC (156–162) | APPArcSwe, APPswe mice (163, 164) |
| [18F]fluorodeprenyl-D2 | Non-human primates (165) | ||
| [18F]SMBT-1 | AD, HC (166, 167) | ||
| [11C]SL25.1188 | HC, MDD (168, 169) | LPS-injected rats (170) | |
| astrocyte | [11C]acetate | MCI, MS, HC (171, 172) | |
| I2BS | [11C]BU99008 | AD, PD, HC (173–178) | Zucker rats, Non-human primates (179–181) |
| [¹⁸F]FEBU (BU99018) | Mice and rats (182) | ||
| [¹¹C]FTIMD | Non-human primates (183) | ||
| OATP1C1 | [18F]2B-SRF101 | 3×Tg mice (184) |
ALS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; COX-1/2, cyclooxygenase 1/2; CSF1R, colony stimulating factor 1 receptor; DED, deuterium-L-deprenyl; FTD, Frontotemporal dementia; GBM, glioblastoma; HC, healthy control; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; I2BS, I2-imidazoline binding sites; LPS, lipopolysaccharides; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; MDD, major depressive disorder; MELAS, mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes; MMP, matrix metalloproteinases; MS, multiple sclerosis; OATP1C1, organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1C1; ROS, reactive oxygen species; PD, Parkinson’s disease; SD, semantic dementia; TREM-1, 2, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1, 2; TSPO, translocator protein; 6-OHD, 6-hydroxydopamine.