Table 1.
Characteristics of the study population (Study 1).
| Lean (n = 19) | Obese (n = 19) | Prediabetes (n = 17) | T2D (n = 16) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age [years]# | 32.8 ± 6.7 | 37.1 ± 8.4 | 42.2 ± 10.0* | 49.6 ± 8.6*‡ |
| BMI [kg/m2] | 22.3 ± 2.1 | 31.6 ± 2.7* | 32.4 ± 2.5* | 31.2 ± 3.9* |
| Body fat [%]# | 16.9 ± 4.2 | 30.0 ± 3.8* | 30.9 ± 3.0* | 29.9 ± 5.4* |
| Visceral AT [cm2]# | 84.1 ± 15.5 | 119.5 ± 34.0* | 141.6.1 ± 45.0* | 190.0 ± 42.9*‡ |
| Adipocyte diameter [µm] | 89.4 ± 12.6 | 120.0 ± 11.5* | 121.0 ± 12.0* | 118.8 ± 16.0* |
| Fasting glucose [mmol/l] | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 4.8 ± 0.5 | 5.7 ± 0.8 | 8.9 ± 2.6*‡† |
| 2h glucose oGTT [mmol/l] | 5.5 ± 1.1 | 5.3 ± 1.5 | 7.7 ± 1.7*‡ | 13.6 ± 3.0*‡† |
| Glucose AUC [oGTT] | 25.0 ± 3.4 | 26.7 ± 4.1 | 37.5 ± 7.4*‡ | 53.4 ± 5.8*‡† |
| Fasting insulin [μU/ml]# | 5.31 ± 4.05 | 11.77 ± 11.16 | 14.89 ± 8.04* | 13.34 ± 8.33* |
| Insulin AUC [oGTT]# | 219.5 ± 83.1 | 324.2 ± 180.0 | 384.9 ± 169.2* | 236.3 ± 170.7 |
| C-peptide [mmol/l]# | 1.28 ± 0.86 | 2.02 ± 1.17 | 2.76 ± 1.01* | 2.91 ± 1.32* |
| Triglycerides [mmol/l]# | 0.97 ± 0.35 | 1.24 ± 0.46 | 2.16 ± 1.01* | 2.15 ± 1.26* |
| Total cholesterol [mmol/l]# | 4.13 ± 0.81 | 4.35 ± 0.70 | 4.90 ± 1.09 | 5.22 ± 0.76*‡ |
| LDL cholesterol # | 2.30 ± 0.67 | 2.58 ± 0.52 | 2.71 ± 0.85 | 2.98 ± 0.59* |
| Atherogenic index # | 2.04 ± 0.67 | 2.79 ± 0.54* | 3.07 ± 0.62* | 3.16 ± 0.61* |
| hsCRP [mg/l]# | 0.66 ± 0.63 | 2.32 ± 2.08* | 2.55 ± 1.76* | 2.37 ± 1.37* |
| Insulin effect | ||||
| M-value [mg.kg-1.min-1]# | 8.55 ± 2.70 | 4.75 ± 1.96* | 3.21 ± 0.98* | 3.06 ± 2.23* |
| M-value/Ins [mg.kg-1.min-1/μU.ml-1 of insulin]# | 0.15 ± 0.06 | 0.08 ± 0.04* | 0.05 ± 0.02* | 0.06 ± 0.05* |
| HOMA-IR # | 1.13 ± 0.88 | 2.53 ± 2.43 | 3.79 ± 1.97* | 5.29 ± 3.66* |
| FFA-EHC [mmol/l]# | 0.12 ± 0.05 | 0.15 ± 0.04 | 0.18 ± 0.12 | 0.17 ± 0.10 |
| Liver parameters | ||||
| Hepatic lipid content [% of water resonance, Log] | 0.09 ± 0.27 | 0.45 ± 0.60 | 1.05 ± 0.52*‡ | 1.18 ± 0.52*‡ |
| Fatty liver index # | 4.34 ± 4.23 | 39.84 ± 16.55* | 62.65 ± 23.44* | 57.70 ± 28.72* |
| AST [μkat/l]# | 0.26 ± 0.04 | 0.36 ± 0.10* | 0.34 ± 0.13 | 0.36 ± 0.20 |
| ALT [μkat/l]# | 0.15 ± 0.12 | 0.28 ± 0.12* | 0.27 ± 0.15* | 0.26 ± 0.12* |
| GGT [μkat/l]# | 0.32 ± 0.23 | 0.58 ± 0.38* | 0.84 ± 0.48* | 0.74 ± 0.46* |
| Physical activity | ||||
| Steps [number/24h]# | 9702 ± 3533 | 8158 ± 3035 | 8408 ± 5496 | 10385 ± 5790 |
| % of moderate and high intensity PA # | 44.8 ± 13.4 | 40.1 ± 16.1 | 32.8 ± 14.9 | 25.0 ± 16.1*‡ |
| Leisure time index # | 3.6 ± 0.5 | 2.7 ± 0.8* | 2.7 ± 0.7* | 2.8 ± 0.7* |
| Sport index # | 2.74 ± 0.82 | 2.30 ± 0.85 | 1.97 ± 0.68* | 2.39 ± 0.85 |
Data are expressed as means ± SD. *significant as compared to lean controls, ‡patients with obesity, †prediabetes. P < 0.05; 1-way ANOVA and Tukey`s post-hoc test were used to compare the groups; #Parameters shown non-normal distribution in at least one group - nonparametric testing was applied (Kruskal-Wallis test with Dunn’s multiple comparison test).
ALT, alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransferase, AT, adipose tissue; AUC, area under the curve; BMI, body mass index; FFA-EHC, Free Fatty Acids measured in a steady state of the euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp/EHC; GGT, gamma-glutamyltransferase; HOMA-IR, HOMA insulin resistance index; hsCRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; M-value/Ins, insulin sensitivity normalized to steady state insulinemia, measured by EHC; oGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; PA, physical activity (assessed by accelerometers).