Table 1.
Compilation of antiviral properties and effects of selected nutraceuticals.
| Name | Virus | Mechanism of action | Effect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Resveratrol (5, 11) | Influenza virus | 1. The active blocking of nucleocytoplasmic translocation of viral ribonucleoproteins in MDCK cells 2. Inhibition of protein kinase C associated mechanism. |
Inhibition of in-vitro and in-vivo viral Replication and protein expression |
| Epstein-Barr Virus | 1. Inhibition of EBV early antigen induction (through Raji cells), EBV lytic cycle, transcription genes and proteins, Rta, Zta, and diffused early antigen (EAD), EBV immediate-early protein: BRLF1 and BZLF1 promoters, transcription factors NF-κβ and AP1. 2. Downregulation of antiapoptotic proteins: Mc 1 STAT-3, miR-155, and miR-34a 3. Reduction in ROS production |
1. Decrease in papilloma production, virion production 2. Inhibition of viral protein synthesis and transformation in human B-cells |
|
| Herpes Simplex Virus | 1. Decreased production of early viral protein ICP-4. 2. Induce the rapid and sustained release of ROS. 3. Inhibition of NF-κβ, extracellular signal-regulated kinases/mitogen-activated protein kinases (Erk/MAPK), immediate-early, early, and late HSV genes. |
1. Reversible, dose-dependent inhibition of virus replication In-vitro and in-vivo 2. Prevention of viral reactivation in neuron cells, cutaneous lesions in abraded skin and vaginal lesions, |
|
| Respiratory Syncytial Virus | 1. Modulation of toll-like receptor 3 expression 2. Inhibition of toll/IL-1R domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN (TRIF) signaling, matrix metalloproteinase 12 (MMP-12), TANK binding kinase 1 (TBK1) protein expression, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, and nerve growth factor (NGF) secretion 3. Induction of muscarinic 2 receptor (M2R) and upregulation of sterile-α- and armadillo motif-containing protein (SARM) expression |
1. Reduction in the level of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) 2. Decreased number of inflammatory cells, reduction of inflammation reflex and airway inflammation. 3. Inhibition of viral replication |
|
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) | 1. Inhibition DNA synthesis during the reverse transcription process 2. Activation of lytic cycle of HIV-1 in vitro; |
1. Inhibition of HIV-1 replication in-vitro 2. attenuation of the Tat-induced HIV-1 LTR trans activation in-vitro |
|
| Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV) | 1. Reversible, dose-dependent inhibition of MRC-5 cells 2. Decrease the synthesis of intermediate early protein (IE 62) |
Inhibition of VZV replication in vitro | |
| Enterovirus 71 | 1. Phosphorylation of proinflammatory cytokines (IKKα, IKKβ, IKKγ, IKBα, NF-κβ p50, and NF-κβ p65) 2. Inhibition of IL-6 and TNF-α Secretion |
Inhibition of viral protein (VP-1) synthesis | |
| Duck Enteritis Virus | 1. Inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-6, and TNF-α), chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL4) secretion 2. Suppression of NF-κβ and interferon regulating factor (IRF-3) |
1. Inhibition of viral replication, protein synthesis in-vitro. 2. Reduction of cellular oxidative damage. |
|
| Human Metapneumonia Virus | 1. Suppression of proinflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-6, and TNF-α) and chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL4) secretion 2. Inhibitory effect on NF-κβ and interferon regulating factor (IRF-3) |
1. Inhibition of viral replication 2. Reduction of cellular oxidative damage and oxidation stress |
|
| African Swine Fever Virus | Inhibition of protein synthesis and virion formation | Inhibition of viral replication in-vitro. | |
| Human Rhinovirus | 1. Suppression of HRV-induced expression of ICAM-1 2. Inhibition of IL-6, IL-8, and RANTES secretion. |
Anti-inflammatory effect | |
| Cytomegalovirus | Inhibition of activated epidermal growth factors (EGF), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase signal transduction, NF-κβ and Sp1 transcription factors | Inhibition of HCMV replication and viral protein synthesis in vitro | |
| Polyomavirus | Blocking of DNA synthesis in a dose dependent manner | Inhibition of viral replication in-vitro | |
| Quercetin (6, 12) | Duck Enteritis Virus | Along with Resveratrol, it suppressed proinflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-6, and TNF-α) and chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL4) secretion | Lowering of cellular oxidative damage |
| Human Metapneumonia Virus | Along with Resveratrol it inhibits secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1α, IL-6, and TNF-α) and chemokines (CXCL10 and CCL4) | Reduction of cellular oxidative damage | |
| Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) | Along with TNF, quercetin increases the activity of IFN-β and up-regulates the IFN-β Production |
Potentiates the dose dependent inhibitory effect of TNF on viral replication. | |
| Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) | Along with TNF, quercetin increases IFN-β activity and up-regulates the production of IFN-β. | Potentiates the dose dependent inhibitory effect of TNF on viral replication | |
| Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) | Along with TNF, quercetin increases the action of IFN-β and up-regulates the production of IFN-β. | Potentiates the dose dependent inhibitory effect of TNF on viral multiplication | |
| Parainfluenza virus type 3 (Pf3) | Inhibits the DNA replication in-vitro | dose-dependent reduction in the infectivity of virus | |
| Curcumin (7, 8) | Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) | Down regulation of the immediate early (IE) genes. | Inhibition of HSV-1 replication |
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) | Obstruction of HIV-1 LTR-directed gene expression, Tat-assisted transactivation (Tat protein acetylation) of HIV-1 LTR, HIV-1 and HIV-2 proteases, HIV-1 Integrase | Inhibition of proviral DNA formation, functional protein formation from viral polyprotein and integration of proviral DNA into host DNA | |
| Influenza Virus | Inhibition of NF-κβ signaling | Inhibition of hemagglutination and viral propagation | |
| Hepatitis B virus | Increase in the level of p53 | Inhibition of viral DNA replication | |
| Hepatitis C virus | Inhibition of the Akt-SREBP-1 pathway | Inhibition of viral DNA replication | |
| Coxsackievirus | Dysregulation of ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) | 1. Inhibition of viral DNA replication, RNA expression 2. Protection against virus-induced apoptosis and cytopathic activity |
|
| Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) | 1. Modulation of cellular levels of stress-related proteins and restoration of membrane integrity 2. Reduction of pro-apoptotic signaling molecules and ROS at cellular level |
Provides neuroprotective effect | |
| Adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) | 1. Suppression of DNA binding, transcriptional effect of AP-1 in HTLV-1-infected T-cell lines and JunD protein expression |
1. Induction of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis 2. Inhibition of HTLV-1 replication in infected T-cell |
|
| EGCG (8) | Influenza Virus | The active blocking of nucleo-cytoplasmic translocation of viral ribonucleoproteins in MDCK cells | Dose dependent inhibition of virus |
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) | Inhibition of α-glucosidase. | Decrease the infectivity of virus | |
| Hepatitis C virus (HCV) | Inhibition of NS3/4A protease | 1. Inhibition of virus maturation 2. Decrease in pathogenicity |
|
| Herpes simplex virus (HSV) | Along with TNF, quercetin increases the action of IFN-β and upregulates the production of IFN-β | Potentiates the dose dependent inhibitory effect of TNF on viral replication. | |
| Enterovirus (EV) | 1.Inhibition of Viral DNA replication in G6PD-deficient cells. 2. Reduction of EV associated cellular oxidative stress |
1. Inhibition of infectious progeny virion formation. 2. Decrease of viral propagation |
|
| NAC (9, 13) | Pneumococcal meningitis | 1. Scavenging Reactive Oxidation Species 2. Inhibition of inflammatory cytokines |
1. Prevention of intracellular oxidation stress. 2. Prevention of Viral Pathogenesis |
| Hepatitis C virus (HCV) | 1. Scavenging Reactive Oxidation Species 2. Inhibition of inflammatory cytokines |
1. Prevention of intracellular oxidation stress. 2. Decrease in viral pathogenesis |
|
| Swine flu (H1N1) virus | 1. Inhibit the down regulation of pulmonary catalase, glutathione and superoxide dismutase 2. Scavenging Reactive Oxidation Species |
1. Prevention of intracellular oxidation stress. 2. Prevention of Viral Pathogenesis |
|
| Bird Flu (H5N1) virus | Inhibition of the pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α), chemokines (e.g., IP10) secretion from primary human macrophages in –vitro | 1. Prevention of intracellular oxidation stress. 2. Prevention of Viral Pathogenesis |
|
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) | 1. Scavenging Reactive Oxidation Species 2. Deactivation of cellular transcription factor (NFK-β) 3. Inhibition of the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor-a) secretion and HIV-1 LTR-directed gene expression |
1. Prevention of intracellular oxidation stress. 2. Prevention of Viral Pathogenesis 3. Inhibition of HIV-transcription and replication |
|
| PEA (10, 14) | Influenza and common cold | 1. Inhibition of the like TNF-α, IL- 1, IL-6, and IL-10. 2. Inhibit adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, P-selectin) and NF-κB expression |
1. Prevention of Viral Pathogenesis 2. Alleviation of the symptoms |
Certain nutraceuticals have inhibitory effects against a range of viruses in animal and human studies. With the advent of a novel coronavirus strain, nutraceuticals pose as a safer and an efficient substitute to help in offering the relief in those infected with encapsulated RNA viruses.