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. 2021 Sep 17;13:723871. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.723871

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Copyright © 2021 Zuccaro, Piol, Basso and Pennuto.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Overview of the cellular and molecular alterations in MNDs. Several cellular and molecular alterations are common to distinct MNDs, including protein misfolding and aggregates, proteostasis impairment, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. IGF-1 and PACAP main signal transduction pathways are presented in the figure.